Figure 5.

GPC supplementation increases cecal TMA and plasma TMAO production. (A,B) Cecal TMA content in LDLr^−/− male (A) and female (B) mice fed choline, GPC supplemented chow diet, and control chow diet for one month. p values were calculated by Wilcoxon rank sum test. (C,D) Production of d₉-TMAO in plasma of Apoe^−/− male (C) and female (D) mice after oral gavage with 150 µL 150 mM d₉-GPC. (E–G) Plasma d₉-GPC, d₉-choline, and d₉-betaine in Apoe^−/− male and female mice after oral gavage with 150 µL 150 mM d₉-GPC. Data are presented as mean ± SE from five male and five female mice in each group (C–G). * p < 0.05 for comparison between male and female mice, determined by Student’s t test.