Table 2.
Hemostatic functions of synthetic polymeric systems.
| Synthetic Polymer | Synthetic Polymeric System [Ref.] | Mode of Application | Case Study Model | Time to Achieve Hemostasis | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polylactic co-glycolic acid (PLGA) | TissuePatchDuralTM [107] G-CSF-dextran nanoparticle-PLGA [108] |
Adhesive patch Gauze |
Patients underwent an intradural neurosurgical procedure. Femoral artery model in rats. |
1 min - |
Excellent for postoperative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage; no foreign body reaction. Provides hemostasis; increases neutrophil activity. |
| Polycaprolactone (PCL) | Gelatin/PCL [110] Chitosan/PCL/Gelatin [111] PCL/Starch [112] |
Nanofibrous matrix sheet Composite scaffold Mat |
In vivo rat liver injury model. In vitro whole blood clotting. Blood-clotting time was determined using the modified Lee and White method. |
- - - |
Safe and effective hemostat; helps in liver regeneration. Strong blood coagulation ability; prevent cell infiltration; biocompatible. Good hemostatic potential with a faster blood-clotting rate. |
| PolySTAT | PolySTAT [131] PolySTAT/Chitosan [135] |
Gauze Injectable polymer |
Rat femoral artery injury model. Trauma and fluid resuscitation model in rat. | - - |
Rapid blood adsorption; withstand arterial pressure. Stabilizes fibrin clot, assists in the formation of a strong clot, mimics the function of transglutaminase factor XIII. |
| Siloxane | Siloxane-based mixtures [136] | Semi-solid gel | Porcine model | - | Semisolid matrix forms an artificial blockage to control bleeding. |
| Polyethylene oxide (PEO) | CMC-PEO-KC [137] | Granules | Femoral artery model in rats. | 90 s | CMC-PEO-KC hydrogels are capable of clotting whole blood, adhering to platelets, and accelerating clotting time. |
| Polyacrylamide (PAM) | Keratin-PAM [138] | Sponge | Rat penetrating liver trauma model | 8 mm wound—48 s 11 mm wound—57 s. |
Highly expandable upon blood adsorption; useful in trauma application. |
| Polyethylene glycol (PEG) | HA-PEG [114] Chitosan-PEG [117] PEG-NHS [140] |
Hydrogel Hydrogel Hydrogel |
Laceration model in rabbit liver and pig skin. Liver penetration model in rat. Hemorrhaging liver mouse model; rat skin incision model. |
30 s - 5 s |
Rapid hemorrhage control; prevent from infection; good candidate for first-aid treatment of critical wound. Rapid hemostasis along with accelerated wound healing; excellent swelling and mechanical properties; low cytotoxicity. Excellent bioadhesive hydrogel; excellent hemostatic ability; possible alternative for sutures. |
| Polyurethane [106] | PU-chitosan [141] | Foam | Rat tail tip model | PU—23.9 min PU-chitosan—21.5 min |
Possible alternative for topical hemostatic agents, chitosan added to PU decreases the bleeding time. |
| Cyanoacrylate | Octyl-cyanoacrylate [142] | Hydrogel | Porcine epistaxis model in pigs. | 259 s | Cost-effective. No follow-up required. |
| Polyethylene terephthalate | Oxygen- and nitrogen-treated PET coated with heparin [143] | - | In vitro study characterized by platelet adhesion in whole human blood using optical imaging techniques. | - | Oxygen-functionalized PET shows better hemostasis compared to nitrogen-functionalized PET. |
| Poly-2-oxazoline (POx) | POx-NHS [144] | Powder | Liver and spleen injury model of profuse bleedings in heparinized pigs. | 20–25 s | NHS-ester and hydrophilic groups required for better hemostatic application. |
| Polydioxanone (PDS) | PDS + Sesame oil/Castor oil/Almond oil/Carbowax 400 [145] | Putty | Rat penetrating liver model | - | Can be used as a bone sealant; effective to osseous hemorrhage; no irritation. |
G-CSF—Granulocytes-colony-stimulating factor; CMC—Carboxymethyl cellulose; KC—Kappa-carrageenan; NHS—N-hydroxy succinimide ester.