Table 2.

General Mechanisms of Disinfecting Agents and Their Impacts on Human Health.

Agent	Mechanism of Action	Benefits	Drawbacks	Adverse Effects	Reference
Ethanol (>60%)	Denaturation of proteins	Recommended by U.S. FDA against SARS-CoV-2; economical and easy to handle	Disagreeable odor, dryness of skin, possibility of unwanted toxicity in children	Skin: Itching, allergy, dermatitis Liver: Hypocalcemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, myoglobinuria Others: Vomiting, drowsiness, respiratory arrest, keto acidosis, arrhythmia, cardiac arrest	[42,80,91]
Isopropanol (>70%)	Denaturation of proteins	Recommended by U.S. FDA against SARS-CoV-2; economical and easy to handle	Unpleasant odor, dryness of skin, possibility of unwanted toxicity in children	Skin: Rash, itching, irritation, allergy Others: Myoglobinuria, gastritis, respiratory depression	[42,80,91]
Quaternary ammonium compounds	Enzymatic inactivation; Degradation of cellular proteins	Minimal human toxicity, better tolerability, no bad odor	Less effective in low pH and in the presence of organic substances	Mild irritation	[91,92]
Hydrogen peroxide	Free-radical induced oxidation of cellular components	Relatively less toxic, inexpensive, easy to use	Corrosive	Mild irritation in skin and mucous membrane, vomiting, air embolism	[80,91,93]
Iodine compounds	Degradation of cellular proteins, fatty acids, and nucleotides	Non-corrosive, ease of use	Unpleasant odor, staining, irritation	Rash, itching, local swelling	[91,92]
Chlorine compounds	Halogenation/oxidation of cellular proteins	Effective in low concentration, low-cost	Corrosive, formation of toxic by-products, irritation	Nausea, coughing, shortness of breath, irritation of mucous membrane, stimulation of the upper airways	[91,94]