Table 3.

Approaches to enhance efficiency of oromucosal drug delivery.

Strategy of Immobilization	Formulation	Outcome	Reference
(PEG)-modified nanoparticles	IFN-α (PEG)-modified chitosan nanoparticles	Provided detectable levels of IFN-α in plasma within 60 min	[103]
Polyelectrolyte microparticles	Polyelectrolyte complex of N-trimethyl chitosan copolymer methacrylic acid PEGDMA loaded with INF-β	Increased INF-β plasma concentrations compared to the subcutaneous injection formulation	[106]
Cationic polymers	Spray dried particles of chitosan loaded with metformin	Improved encapsulation efficiency for decreased chitosan/metformin ratio	[108]
Liposomes coated with cationic or anionic polymers	Chitosan, low-methoxylated pectin, high-methoxylated pectin, amidated pectin, Eudragit, (p(NIPAAM-co-MAA)), and other polymers	The positively charged DDS exhibited the strongest mucoadhesive interaction	[109]
Polyelectrolyte complexes	Polyelectrolyte complexes of chitosan and casein loaded with benzydamine	Improved drug absorption and release	[110]
Nanocapsules	Nanocapsules based on poly(e-caprolactone) loaded with Carvedilol (CAR) (CAR-LNC) and Eudragit ÒRS 100 (CAR-NC)	Enhanced drug release from the nanocapsules	[111]