Table 1.
Habitual choline intakes in nonpregnant women of childbearing age.
| First Author, Country | Age, Years | Study Design, Cohort Name | Sample Size | Method and Duration/Time Period | Database Used to Estimate the Intake | Source(s) of Choline | Choline Intake (mg/day) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Petersen et al. (2019), United States [26] | Range <25 years (12.4%) 25–34 years (68.3%) ≥35 years (19.4%) |
Case–control study (the Slone Birth Defect study 1975–2014) | Mothers of n = 164 NTD cases (live births, foetal deaths, elective terminations), and n = 2831 control infants | SQ FFQ (the Willett FFQ) to capture the intake in the past 6 months | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Nutrition Department’s Food Composition Table. |
F+S | Mean (SD) = Controls: 275 (68) Cases: 273 (67) Choline intake data were based on women with folic acid intake >400 µg/day |
| Probst et al. (2019), Australia [19] | Range 16–44 years |
Cross-sectional study based on The Australian Health Survey 2011–13 | n = 2210 | 2 day intake data | Sourced studies and global food composition databases and compared these with data from Australian foods (from AUSNUT 2011–13 Australian Food) |
FO | Median (IQR) = 233 (103) |
| Oyen et al. (2017), Norway [27] | Range 46–49 years |
Cross-sectional study based on The Hordaland Health study | n = 1600 | FFQ (habitual diet from past year) validated: 169 items; frequency of consumption specified per day, week, or month | Choline intakes estimated according to the 2008 USDA choline database |
F+S | Median (IQR) = 255 (63) |
| Gao et al. (2016), Canada [28] | Mean = 43.7 years | Cross-sectional CODING study (Complex Diseases in the Newfoundland population: Environment and Genetics) study | n = 2232–2295 (sample size range) | SQ FFQ (the Willett FFQ) 124 items; data from past 12 months | NutriBase Clinical Nutrition Manager | FO | Mean (SD) = 292 (213) |
| Wallace et al. (2016), United States [17] | Range 19–30 years Range 31–50 years |
Cross-sectional study based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2009–2012) |
n = 1096 (19–30 years) n = 1794 (31–50 years) |
Two 24 h dietary recalls with trained interviewers | Various USDA food composition databases | F+S | Mean (SD) = 19–30 years: 250 (166); 31–50 years: 278 (169) |
| Vennemann et al. (2015), Europe [21] | Range 18–≤65 years |
Cross-sectional dietary surveys in each country | Finland n = 710; France n = 1340; Ireland n = 640; Italy n = 1245; Netherlands n = 1034; Sweden n = 807; UK n = 706 |
3 day dietary record 7 day dietary record 4 day dietary record 3 day dietary record 24 h dietary recall 4 day web record 4 day dietary record |
USDA Database (2013) | FO | Mean (5th, 95th percentiles) = Finland: 344 (177, 578); France: 291 (162, 440); Ireland: 318 (166, 485); Italy: 293 (153, 463); Netherlands: 334 (185, 543); Sweden: 374 (186, 631); UK: 294 (145, 478) |
| Lavery et al. (2014), Mexican Americans [25] | Range <20 years (24.7%) 20–24 years (34.2%) 25–29 years (24%) >30 years (35%) |
Case–control study | Mothers of n = 184 cases with NTDs and n = 225 controls | FFQ: 98 items ascertaining food frequency for 3 months before their conception date to 3 months postpartum | USDA database containing 630 food items and six choline metabolites. | FO | Median (IQR) = Controls: 760 (456); Cases: 722 (689) |
| Lee et al. (2010), United States [29] | Range 29–86 years |
Cross=sectional study in the sixth examination (1995–1998) of the Framingham Offspring Study | n = 1407 | FFQ, validated: 130 items; frequency of consumption over the past year | Choline composition data values published by Zeisel et al. [30] and from the USDA 2008 Database |
F+S | Energy adjusted mean (SD) = 308 (56) |
| Chiuve et al. (2007), United States [31] | Range 30–55 years |
Cross-sectional study based on the Nurses’ Health Study | n = 1477 | SQ FFQ, validated: undertaken every 4-years | Choline composition data values published by Zeisel et al. [30] and from the USDA 2008 Database |
FO | Energy adjusted median (range of 3rd quintile) = 323 (311–334) |
| Fischer et al. (2005), United States [32] | Range 18–67 years |
Ad libitum dietary intake in the study centre | n = 16 | Choline content was measured in the foods and compared to estimates from a pre-study 3 day food record | The Food Processor SQL program using USDA Nutrient Database and Zeisel et al. [30] data | FO | Mean (SD) = 443 (88) |
| Shaw et al. (2004), United States [33] | Women recruited after delivery, age not reported | Case–control study | Mothers of n = 424 cases with NTDs, mothers of n = 440 controls | FFQ: 100 items used to assess frequency and portion size consumed 3 months before conception | Used choline values published by Zeisel et al. [30] | FO | Mean (SD) = Controls: 409 (179); Cases: 377 (176) |
FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; FO, foods only, F+S, foods and supplements; IQR; interquartile range; NTD, neural tube defects; SD, standard deviation; SQ FFQ, semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire; USDA, United States Department of Agriculture.