Table 2.

Habitual choline intakes in pregnant women.

First Author, Country	Age, Years	Study Design	Sample Size	Method and Duration/ Time Period	Database Used to Estimate the Intake	Source(s) of Choline	Choline Intake (mg/day)
Fawcet et al. (2020), United States [34]	Not reported.	Prospective longitudinal study	n = 251	3 day food records completed during the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimester	Nutrient Data System for Research	FO	Mean (SD not reported) = 281
Moore et al. (2020), United Kingdom [35]	Mean (SD) = 31.4 (4) years	Be Healthy in Pregnancy (B-HIP) study, baseline data of a RCT	n = 232	3 day weighed diet record (2 week days and 1 weekend day) completed at 12–17 weeks gestation	Nutritionist Pro™ diet analysis software	F+S	Median (min, max) = 338 (120, 1016)
Zhu et al. (2020), China [36]	Mean (SD) = 28 (4) years	Case–control study (SQ FFQ retrospective collecting dietary intake during pregnancy)	Mothers of n = 157 term controls	SQ FFQ, validated, 120 food items including the most common foods in the Chinese diet conducted no later than 3 days after parturition	China Food Composition and the USDA Food Composition Database	FO	Energy-adjusted choline intake in the controls Median (IQR) = 255 (70)
Probst et al. (2019), Australia [19]	Range 19–50 years	Cross-sectional study based on data from the Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2011–12	n = 116	2 day intake data (data filtered for women who were pregnant at the time of the survey)	Sourced studies and global food composition databases, compared with data for Australian foods to create a choline database	FO	Median (IQR) = 251 (111)
Bailey et al. (2019), United States [16]	Range 20–40 years	Cross-sectional study based on data from NHANES (2001–2014)	n = 533	24 h dietary recall ×2 (taking part in the What We Eat in America survey)	USDA Food Composition Database 2019	FO	Mean (SD) = 321 (231)
Pauwels et al. (2017), Belgium [37]	Range 25–41 years	A longitudinal Maternal Nutrition and Offspring’s Epigenome study (MANOE)	1st trimester: n = 94 2nd trimester: n = 85 3rd trimester: n = 82	FFQ, validated: 51 items completed at 11–13, 18–22, and 30–34 weeks of pregnancy	Not reported	F+S	Mean (SD) = 1st trimester: 274 (72); 2nd trimester: 268 (68); 3rd trimester: 280 (78)
Wallace et al. (2017), United States [18]	Range 13–44 years	Cross-sectional study based on data from the 2009–2014 and 2005–2014 NHANES (2009–2014 and 2005–2014) datasets	n = 593	24 h dietary recalls ×2	Various USDA food composition databases used	F+S	Mean (SD) = 319 (241)
Groth et al. (2017), United States [38]	Range 18–36 years	Prospective observational study, secondary analysis of the Limiting the Phenotypic Effect of Pregnancy-Related Weight Gain	1st trimester: n = 90 2nd trimester: n = 68 3rd trimester: n = 67	24 h dietary recalls ×3 at three timepoints: early (<22 weeks), mid (24–29 weeks), and late (32–37 weeks) pregnancy.	Nutrition Data System for Research software 2009	FO	Mean (SD) = 1st trimester: 318 (68); 2nd trimester: 289 (28); 3rd trimester: 306 (28)
Masih et al. (2015), Canada [39]	Mean (SD) = 32 (5) years	Prospective observational study, the Prenatal Folic Acid Exposure on DNA Methylation in the newborn infant study	n = 290	SQ FFQ, validated: 110 items; recall of habitual intakes between 0–16 and 23–27 weeks gestation	Nutrition Quest used the nutrient composition data primarily from version 1.0 of the USDA Food and Nutrient Database	F+S	Mean (SD) = 1st trimester: 306 (127); 3rd trimester: 302 (122)
Goon et al. (2014), Bangladesh [40]	Range 21–25 years	Cross-sectional study	n = 103	24 h dietary recall in the 7th, 8th, or 9th months of pregnancy	USDA Food Composition database	FO	Mean (SD) = 190 (98)
Lewis et al. (2014), Canada [41]	Range 17–30 years (45.8%) 31–45 years (54.2%)	Prospective cohort study, the Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition (APrON) cohort study	1st trimester: n = 123; 2nd trimester: n = 562; 3rd trimester: n = 493	24 h dietary recall using the multiple-pass method in each trimester	The Alberta database used the USDA Database for the Choline Content of Common Foods, Release 2 (634 foods)	F+S	Mean (SD) = 1st trimester: 340 (148); 2nd trimester: 349 (154); 3rd trimester: 353 (144)
Mygind et al. (2013), New Zealand [20]	Range 18–40 years	Baseline part of dietary data collection for a folate intervention study	n = 125	3 day weighed food record Two weekdays and one weekend day	USDA Choline Content of Common Foods, Release 2, 2008	FO	Median (IQR) = 310 (87)
Wu et al. (2012), Canada [42]	Not reported	Prospective study	n = 154	FFQ, women enrolled from 16 weeks gestation	USDA Choline Content of Common Foods, Release 2, 2008	FO	Mean (SD) = 383 (99)
Villamor et al. (2012), United States [43]	Mean (SD) = 33 (5) years	Project Viva longitudinal study	1st trimester: n = 1148 2nd trimester: n = 1083	FFQ in the first and second trimester (26–28 weeks gestation)	Harvard nutrient composition database	F+S	Mean (SD) = 1st trimester: 332 (63); 2nd trimester: 325 (64)
EFSA (2016), Latvia [12,44]	Range 15–45 years	Food Consumption data from the EFSA European Comprehensive Food Consumption Database	n = 990	24 h dietary recall in pregnancy	Not reported	FO	Pregnant adolescents: Mean = 336; Pregnant women: Mean (5th, 95th percentiles) = 356 (200, 592)
Gossell-Williams et al. (2005), Jamaica [45]	Range 18–32 years	Observational study	n = 16	FFQ (Jamaican foods) recruited at 10–15 weeks gestation	USDA Food Composition database	FO	Mean (SD) = 279 (116)

EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; FFQ, food frequency questionnaire; FO, foods only; F+S, foods and supplements; IQR; interquartile range; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; RCT, randomised controlled trial; SD, standard deviation; SQ FFQ, semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire; USDA, United States Department of Agriculture.