Table 1.

List of the 25 metabolites that changed significantly by the largest amount in AD serum after BFT treatment and comparison with those reported in literature for AD progression.

Primary ID	VIP Score	FC of T/P	log2(FC) of T/P	p Value	BFT Treatment	Literature FC for AD/C [28,29,30,31]
Thiamine	2.974	101.07	6.66	0.0110	↑	0.18↓
4-[(Z)-2-Aminovinyl]phenol *	1.273	2.16	1.11	0.0306	↑	NA
3-Buten-1-amine *	1.121	1.77	0.82	0.0036	↑	NA
Tyrosine	1.329	1.66	0.73	0.0496	↑	0.86↓
Betaine *	1.128	1.641	0.71	0.0154	↑	NA
Indole	1.244	1.59	0.67	0.0182	↑	0.86↓
Tryptophan	1.518	1.55	0.63	0.0323	↑	0.75↓
Choline	1.466	1.77	0.83	0.0632	↑	NA
Histidine	1.174	1.29	0.37	0.0626	↑	0.83↓
Platelet-activating factor	1.035	1.10	0.14	0.4183	↑	NA
1-Palmitoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-PE	1.235	0.69	−0.54	0.3572	↓	NA
O-Ureido-D-serine	1.222	0.78	−0.36	0.0019	↓	NA
Carboxymethyl-L-lysine	1.653	0.73	−0.45	0.5331	↓	1.37↑
9-HpODE	1.027	0.71	−0.49	0.1830	↓	NA
10-Undecenoic acid	1.274	0.50	−1.01	0.1024	↓	NA
Palmitic acid	1.150	0.50	−1.01	0.1033	↓	0.65↓
N-Undecanoylglycine	1.054	0.50	−1.01	0.1024	↓	NA
Androsterone sulfate	1.219	0.48	−1.06	0.0343	↓	1.93↑
Uric acid	1.117	0.43	−1.22	0.1340	↓	1.20↑
9(S)-HpOTrE	1.249	0.41	−1.28	0.1733	↓	NA
Linoleic acid	1.351	0.37	−1.43	0.0817	↓	1.28↑
5α-Dihydrotestosterone glucuronide	1.461	0.37	−1.45	0.1190	↓	NA
16-Hydroxyhexadecanoic acid	1.220	0.25	−2.01	0.0241	↓	NA
2-Isopropylmalic acid	1.605	0.15	−2.73	0.2055	↓	NA
Lysine	1.777	0.08	−3.56	0.0272	↓	1.28↑

* Represents they are either phytochemical or drug metabolites. VIP represents variable importance in projection, VIP scores were obtained from OPLS-DA model, and the cutoff VIP score is >1. The changed metabolites with additional p-values < 0.05, are in bold and italic. FC represents fold change, log₂(FC) represents log₂(fold change), BFT-benfotiamine, T-Treated samples, P-Placebo samples, AD-Alzheimer’s disease samples, C-Control samples or healthy ones, NA-Not available. Red arrow-increased level, and blue arrow-decreased level.