Table 1. Some recent studies using nanomaterials in the biosensor for detecting SARS-CoV-2.

Nanomaterial/nanostructures	Detection of molecule	Limit of detection	Study
Gold nanostructures	Spike protein	5 µg·mL–1	[63]
Gold nanostructures	Spike protein	80 copies mL−1 in contaminated water	[64]
Gold nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG	Semi-quantitative	[37]
Gold nanostructures	RNA	4 copies/µL	[65]
Gold nanostructures	N gene and E gene	300 copies/µL of E gene; 225 copies/µL of N gene	[66]
Gold nanostructures	Viral proteins of SARS-CoV-2 trapped in surgical face masks	3 ng mL−1	[62]
Gold nanostructures	RNA	50 RNA copies per reaction	[67]
Gold nanostructure	16S rRNAs; N gene	(Not Reported)	[68]
Gold nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies	3.2 nM	[69]
Gold nanostructures	N gene	0.18 ng/µL	[39]
Gold nanostructures	Viral particles	Viral loads corresponding to Ct = 36.5	[38]
Gold nanostructures	RNA	10 copies/µL	[70]
Gold nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM	(Not reported)	[55]
Gold nanostructures	Highly conserved nucleoprotein	250 pg/mL	[56]
Gold nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG	(Not reported)	[57]
Gold nanostructures	Volatile organic compounds from breath	(Not reported)	[58]
Gold Nano star	Spike protein and the virus	130 fg/mL for antigen and 8 particles/mL for virus	[71]
Gold nanoislands	RNA	0.22 pM	[44]
Gold nanoisland films	RNA	2.98 copies µL−1	[72]
Gold nanostructures and spherical nucleic acid	RNA	(Not reported)	[73]
Gold nanostructures and spherical nucleic acid	RNA	Six copies of ssDNA per reaction	[36]
Gold nanostructures and graphite	Spike protein	229 fg mL−1	[74]
Gold and silver nanostructures	Spike protein	0.77 fg mL−1 in PBS; 6.07 fg mL−1 in saliva; 7.60 fg mL−1 in serum; and 0.10 pg mL−1 in blood	[75]
(Not Reported)	SARS-CoV-2 total antibody	(Not Reported)	[76]
Gold-platinum core-shell nanostructures	Subunit S1 of spike protein (S)	11 ng mL−1	[77]
Gold nanostructure (AuNP)-decorated graphene field-effect transistor (G-FET) sensor	RNA	0.37 fM in PBS; 2.29 fM in throat swab; and 3.99 fM in serum	[50]
Super paramagnetic nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG	10 ng/mL for IgM and 5 ng/mL for IgG	[78]
Lanthanide-doped nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG	(Not Reported)	[79]
Selenium nanostructures	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG	20 ng/mL for IgM and 5 ng/mL for IgG	[46]
Au/Ag coated carbon nanotubes	Live virus	(Not Reported)	[41]
Europium-chelate-based fluorescent nanostructures	RNA	1,000 TU (transduction units) mL−1	[80]
Ag shell on SiO2 core (SiO2@Ag)	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM/IgG	1 pg/mL	[43]
(Not Reported)	Total antibody (IgA, IgM, and IgG) against SARS-CoV-2	(Not Reported)	[81]
Cobalt functionalized-TiO2 nanotube	RBD domain of S protein	~0.7 nM	[47]
Carbon black	Spike (S) protein or Nucleocapsid (N) protein	19 ng/mL for S protein; 8 ng/mL for N protein	[60]
Carbon nanotubes	RNA	6.4 copies/µL in PBS and 9.2 copies/µL in 50% human saliva	[48]
Graphene	Spike protein	1.6 × 101 pfu/mL in culture medium; 2.42 × 102 copies/mL in clinical samples; 1 fg/mL in phosphate-buffered saline; 100 fg/mL in clinical transport medium	[49]
Graphene	Spike protein	∼3.75 and ∼1 fg/mL in artificial saliva and phosphate-buffered saline, respectively	[82]
Reduced-graphene-oxide Nano flakes	Antibodies to spike S1 protein and its receptor-binding-domain (RBD)	2.8 × 10−15 M for spike S1 protein and 16.9 × 10−15 M receptor-binding-domain	[51]
Quantum dot	Antibodies	17.5 pM for nucleocapsid antibody and 24.4 pM for S1 antibody	[83]
Quantum dot Nano beads	SARS-CoV-2 total antibody	(Not Reported)	[84]
Enzyme-DNA hybrid Nano complexes	RNA	~8 RNA copies/µL	[85]
Streptavidin coated polymer nanostructures	ORF1ab and N gene	12 copies per reaction	[45]
Aggregation-induced emission (AIE) dye-loaded nanostructure	anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG	0.236 mL–1 for IgM; 0.125 µg mL–1 for IgG	[86]