How this fits in

Timely diagnosis of bladder and kidney cancer from primary care is key to improving survival rates, but remains challenging. Risk models have been suggested as a possible tool to guide clinicians in making referral decisions, particularly in individuals who present atypically. This systematic review identified a number of models that may be of interest, in particular, models able to identify low-risk individuals who may not require referral and a model suitable for stratifying risk in individuals with non-visible haematuria. However, only a small number of models included clinical features other than haematuria and there was a lack of external validations.