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. 2021 Dec 15;8:799442. doi: 10.3389/fsurg.2021.799442

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Copyright © 2021 Alkatout, Mechler, Mettler, Pape, Maass, Biebl, Gitas, Laganà and Freytag.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Pioneers of laparoscopy. (A) Philipp Bozzini (1773–1809), (B) Antonin Jean Desormeaux (1815–1894), (C) Georg Kelling (1866–1945), (D) Maximilian Nitze (1848–1906), (E) Heinrich Kalk (1895–1973), (F) Raoul Palmer (1904–1985).