Table 1.
Effect of different plant extracts and essential oils on Clostridium perfringens inducing necrotic enteritis (NE).
| Type of plant and essential oils | Doses | Infectious dose and pattern | Main effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turmeric (Curcuma longa) powder | 2 g/kg | No experimental infection. | Significantly decreases loads of C. perfringens and chick's mortality. Significantly decreases feed conversion ratio. | Ali et al., 2020 |
| Mojave yucca (Yucca schidigera) extract | 567 g/ton for starter, 454 g/ton for grower, and 340 g/ton for finisher | Naturally occurring NE model by indirect challenge with Coccivac-B52 vaccine on d 7. | Significantly improves broilers performance during the early NE challenge phase, as well as in the grower period but had no effect on NE lesions in the small intestine. | Calik et al., 2019 |
| Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) | 5, 20, and 50 (g/kg) | 2 × 3 107 CFU/mL on d 19, d 20, and day 21 proceeded by Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria maxima on d 14. | Extracts at 5 and 20 g/kg improves body weight gain after challenge with C. perfringens and reduces mortality and lesion scores. | McDougald et al., 2008 |
| Chestnut (Castanea sp.) and quebracho | 0.03 to 8 (mg/mL) | In vitro. | Inhibits growth of C. perfringens types A, B, C, D, and E in a dose-dependent manner in the presence of all tannins extracts. Quebracho tannins shows partial bactericidal activity, whereas chestnut tannin activity was stronger. Both tannins reduces alpha toxin lecithinase activity and epsilon toxin cytotoxicity. | Elizondo et al., 2010 |
| Oregano (Origanum vulgare) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) | 100 ppm (15% thymol and 15% carvacrol) & (30% thymol) | No experimental infection. | Reduces C. perfringens counts in the gastrointestinal tract and feces. | Mitsch et al., 2004 |
| Pepper (Capsicum ) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) | 4 mg/kg | 1 × 109 CFU of C. perfringens /bird on d 18 proceeded by oral infection on d 14 with Eimeria maxima. | Increases body weight. Decreases NE-related inflammatory response and macroscopic intestinal lesion score. | Lee et al., 2013 |
| Sweet sagewort (Artemisia annua) | 10 g/kg | Administration of fish meal diets with 200 mL of 106 of C. perfringens, on d 17, 18, 19, and 20 with administration of a 10-fold overdose of paracox-5 vaccine. | Decreases body weight gain and feed intake but improves feed conversion ratio. Reduces macroscopic intestinal lesion score. Reduces C. perfringens counts in large intestine | Engberg et al., 2012 |
| Commercial product (25% carvacrol and 25% thymol) | 60, 120, or 240 mg/kg | Wheat-based diet with oral gavage of C. perfringens from d 14 to 21. | Shows no effect on body weight gain and feed intake but reduces macroscopic intestinal lesion score. | Du et al., 2015 |
| A mixture of thymol, Cinnamaldehyde and eucalyptus | 150 g/ton | 4.108 CFU of C. perfringens on d 19, 20, 21 and 22 (3 times a day) with using wheat/rye-based (43%/7.5%) diet, with soybean meal and fishmeal (30%) as a protein source followed by a 10-fold dose of paracox-5 on d 20. | Reduces macroscopic intestinal lesion score induced by C. perfringens | Timbermont et al., 2010 |
| Ginger oil and carvacrol 1% | 1.5 g/kg | 2 mL of C. perfringens A suspension (6–8 × 108 CFU) orally on d 18, 19, 20, and 21 3 times a day (at 0800 h, 1,200 h, and 1,600 h) that proceeded by bursal disease vaccine via drinking water on day 16 to induce immunosuppression and followed by a 10-fold dose of Paracox-5 vaccine on d 19. | Improves growth performance, reduces macrsoscopic and microscopic intestinal lesion score. Increases epithelial villus lengths and villus: crypt ratio. | Jerzsele et al., 2012 |
| Peppermint oil and peppermint oil micro emulsion (15% oil/water) | Peppermint oil (0.5 mL/mL water) micro emulsion (0.25 mL/mL water) | 1 mL (1 × 108) C. perfringens as 3 successive doses for d 14, 15, and 16. | Induces lower gross lesions and mortality. Reduces colony-forming units and improved growth performance. | Sorour et al., 2021 |
| Oregano (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum) | 10 g/kg | No experimental infection. | Improves growth performance. | Cross et al., 2007 |
| Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) | 10 g/kg | No experimental infection. | Reduces C. perfringens bacterial counts in ceca and feces and had no effect on lactic acid bacteria. | Cross et al., 2007 |
| Essential oils and organic acids | 500 mg/kg | 2.2 × 108 CFU/day orally at 18–20 day of age proceeded by Eimeria maxima and Eimeria necatrix at d 14 | Improves feed conversion ratio. Increases villus height and villus: crypt ratio. Reduces intestinal C. perfringens counts, liver C. perfringens carriage, gut lesion scores and serum fluoresce in isothiocyanate dextran. | Pham et al., 2021 |
| Yarrow (Achillea millefolium var. alba) | 10 g/kg | No experimental infection. | Improves growth performance, reduces C. perfringens bacterial counts in ceca and feces and had no effect on lactic acid bacteria. | Cross et al., 2007 |
| Lippia origanoides essential oils | 37 ppm | Challenged with ST (d 1),Eimeria maxima (d 18), and CP 1 × 109 CFU per bird (d 22 and 23) orally | Significantly reduces the harmful effects of induced infection/dysbiosis and a significantly reduces NE lesion scores, morbidity and mortality. Significantly reduces FITC-d, IFN-γ and IgA. | Coles et al., 2021 |
| Essential oil mixture (25% thymol and 25% carvacrol) | 120 mg/kg | 0.1 mL of 1.0 × 108 CFU/mL from day 14 to d 20 orally | Decreases the mortality, reduces the gut lesions and the liver enterobacteriaceae carriage. Increases the villus height of the ileum. Proliferation of C. perfringens in the ileum was not inhibited. | Du and Guo, 2021 |
| A mixture of thyme and star anise 17.0% and 17.0% | 250mg/kg | 5 mL of (107 CFU/mL)/chick on d 21–23 orally | Improves growth performance and digestibility of dry matter. Decreases gross lesion score in the intestine C. perfringens bacterial counts in small and large intestines. | Cho et al., 2014 |
| Clove, Oregano and thyme (individual administration) | 0.062, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/mL-1 | In vitro. | Strongly inhibits the bacterial growth in vitro through the micro broth dilution method. | Mzabi et al., 2019 |