Table 12.
Estimated associations between paternal incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes, restricted to births insured by Medicaid/family health plus, by race/ethnicity (Stratified Models)
| White | Black | Hispanic | Other | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant birth outcomes | ||||
| Preterm birth | ||||
| Late (32–36 weeks) | 1.55 | 1.32*** | 1.25* | 0.91 |
| [0.97, 2.49] | [1.14, 1.54] | [1.04, 1.49] | [0.39, 2.09] | |
| Early (28–31 weeks) | 1.18 | 1.20 | 0.83 | 1.85 |
| [0.16, 8.68] | [0.82, 1.74] | [0.47, 1.48] | [0.25, 13.72] | |
| Extremely early (< 28 weeks) | na | 0.94 | 1.84* | 2.88 |
| [0.59, 1.49] | [1.14, 2.97] | [0.38, 21.95] | ||
| Low birth weight | 2.31*** | 1.20* | 1.38*** | 1.92* |
| [1.55, 3.46] | [1.04, 1.38] | [1.17, 1.63] | [1.08, 3.43] | |
| Small for gestational age+ | 2.89*** | 1.13 | 1.26 | 2.10 |
| [1.67, 5.01] | [0.90, 1.42] | [0.96, 1.64] | [0.95, 4.61] | |
| NICU admission | 2.00*** | 1.08 | 0.99 | 1.55 |
| [1.40, 2.88] | [0.95, 1.22] | [0.84, 1.15] | [0.91, 2.65] | |
| Low 5-minute Apgar score (< 7) | 1.84 | 1.16 | 1.49 | na |
| [0.57, 5.95] | [0.80, 1.70] | [0.94, 2.37] | ||
| Infant death++ | na | 0.76 | 1.22 | na |
| [0.36, 1.63] | [0.57, 2.61] | |||
| Father characteristics | X | X | X | X |
| Maternal characteristics and health | X | X | X | X |
| Health care access | X | X | X | X |
| N | 76,054 | 66,525 | 134,799 | 69,856 |
“na” indicates that an estimate is not available because paternal incarceration was perfectly correlated with that outcome. Results are reported as odds ratio estimates of the direct effect of paternal incarceration from the full model (Model 4), which includes covariates of paternal age at birth, race/ethnicity, and education; maternal age at birth, education, body mass index, marital status at birth, indicators of prior low birthweight birth, prior preterm birth, maternal smoking during this pregnancy, pre-pregnancy hypertension, gestational hypertension, and gestational diabetes; and trimester of first prenatal care visit. Models also include a flag indicating whether birth father was missing from the birth record. Asterisks denote statistically significant differences at the ***p < 0.001 **p < 0.01 *p < 0.05 levels from the reference group of those with no paternal incarceration in the gestational period or at birth. 95% confidence intervals are reported in brackets
Analysis restricted to full term births (37 weeks or later)
Estimate restricted to births in 2010–2015 because infant death data were not yet available for births in 2016