Table 13.

Estimated associations between paternal incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes, including births missing paternal information, by race/ethnicity (Stratified Models)

	White	Black	Hispanic	Other
Infant birth outcomes
Preterm birth
Late (32–36 weeks)	1.31	1.34***	1.22*	1.30
	[0.84, 2.04]	[1.17, 1.53]	[1.04, 1.43]	[0.71, 2.37]
Early (28–31 weeks)	0.74	1.18	0.80	2.23
	[0.10, 5.33]	[0.85, 1.64]	[0.47, 1.36]	[0.54, 9.22]
Extremely early (< 28 weeks)	1.93	0.93	1.91**	na
	[0.47, 7.95]	[0.62, 1.39]	[1.25, 2.92]
Low birth weight	1.93**	1.22**	1.36***	1.90*
	[1.33, 2.81]	[1.08, 1.38]	[1.17, 1.58]	[1.16, 3.12]
Small for gestational agea	2.30**	1.15	1.26	2.23*
	[1.35, 3.91]	[0.94, 1.41]	[0.99, 1.61]	[1.12, 4.44]
NICU admission	1.80***	1.09	1.05	1.70*
	[1.31, 2.48]	[0.98, 1.22]	[0.92, 1.21]	[1.09, 2.66]
Low 5-minute Apgar score (< 7)	2.11	1.08	1.63*	na
	[0.77, 5.75]	[0.77, 1.52]	[1.09, 2.44]
Infant deathb	na	0.98	1.60	na
		[0.53, 1.80]	[0.85, 3.04]
Flag for father missing on record	X	X	X	X
Father characteristics		X	X	X
Maternal characteristics and health			X	X
Health care access				X
N	225,328	140,686	212,560	128,865

“na” indicates that an estimate is not available because paternal incarceration was perfectly correlated with that outcome. Results are reported as odds ratio estimates of the direct effect of paternal incarceration from the full model (Model 4), which includes covariates of paternal age at birth, race/ethnicity, and education; maternal age at birth, education, body mass index, marital status at birth, indicators of prior low birthweight birth, prior preterm birth, maternal smoking during this pregnancy, pre-pregnancy hypertension, gestational hypertension, and gestational diabetes; and trimester of first prenatal care visit and indicator of whether the delivery was covered by Medicaid. Models also include a flag indicating whether the birth father was missing from the birth record. Asterisks denote statistically significant differences at the ***p < 0.001 **p < 0.01 *p < 0.05 levels from the reference group of those with no paternal incarceration in the gestational period or at birth. 95% confidence intervals are reported in brackets

^aAnalysis restricted to full term births (37 weeks or later)

^bEstimate restricted to births in 2010–2015 because infant death data were not yet available for births in 2016