Table 3.
Estimated associations between paternal incarceration during pregnancy and infant birth outcomes
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant birth outcomes | ||||
| Preterm birth | ||||
| Late (32–36 weeks) | 1.65*** | 1.36*** | 1.34*** | 1.34*** |
| [1.50, 1.82] | [1.24, 1.49] | [1.21, 1.48] | [1.21, 1.48] | |
| Early (28–31 weeks) | 1.82*** | 1.36*** | 1.13 | 1.14 |
| [1.38, 2.39] | [1.38, 2.39] | [0.86, 1.50] | [0.86, 1.50] | |
| Extremely early (< 28 weeks) | 2.46*** | 1.19 | 1.32 | 1.33 |
| [1.86, 3.26] | [0.90, 1.57] | [0.99, 1.76] | [1.00, 1.77] | |
| Low birth weight | 1.92*** | 1.44*** | 1.39*** | 1.39*** |
| [1.76, 2.10] | [1.32, 1.58] | [1.27, 1.53] | [1.27, 1.53] | |
| Small for Gest. Agea | 1.72*** | 1.39*** | 1.36*** | 1.35*** |
| [1.49, 1.99] | [1.21, 1.62] | [1.17, 1.58] | [1.17, 1.57] | |
| NICU admission | 1.58*** | 1.18*** | 1.14** | 1.14** |
| [1.45, 1.71] | [1.08, 1.28] | [1.04, 1.24] | [1.05, 1.24] | |
| Low 5-min. Apgar (< 7) | 1.96*** | 1.34* | 1.31* | 1.31* |
| [1.53, 2.53] | [1.03, 1.72] | [1.02, 1.70] | [1.02, 1.70] | |
| Infant deathb | 2.40*** | 1.42 | 1.33 | 1.33 |
| [1.59, 3.64] | [0.93, 2.15] | [0.87, 2.02] | [0.87, 2.03] | |
| Father characteristics | X | X | X | |
| Maternal characteristics and health | X | X | ||
| Health care access | X |
N = 627,118. Results are reported as odds ratios estimates. Asterisks denote statistically significant differences at the ***p < 0.001 **p < 0.01 *p < 0.05 levels from the reference group of those with no paternal incarceration in the gestational period or at birth. 95% confidence intervals are reported in brackets
Analysis restricted to full term births (37 weeks or later) (N = 585,865)
Analysis restricted to births in 2010–2015 because infant death data were not yet available for births in 2016 (N = 526,060). Model 1 is an unadjusted/bivariate model. Models 2–4 incrementally add covariates for the following sets of measures: (2) paternal age at birth, race/ethnicity, and education; (3) maternal age at birth, maternal race/ethnicity, education, body mass index, marital status at birth, indicators of prior low birthweight birth, prior preterm birth, maternal smoking during this pregnancy, pre-pregnancy hypertension, gestational hypertension, and gestational diabetes; (4) trimester of first prenatal care visit and indicator of whether the delivery was covered by Medicaid