Table 4.
Estimated associations between paternal incarceration during pregnancy and birth outcomes among births insured by Medicaid/family health plus
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant birth outcomes | ||||
| Preterm birth | ||||
| Late (32–36 weeks) | 1.60*** | 1.37*** | 1.35*** | 1.35*** |
| [1.44, 1.78] | [1.23, 1.53] | [1.20, 1.50] | [1.21, 1.51] | |
| Early (28–31 weeks) | 1.72*** | 1.21 | 1.15 | 1.15 |
| [1.28, 2.33] | [0.89, 1.64] | [0.85, 1.56] | [0.85, 1.56] | |
| Extremely early (< 28 weeks) | 2.20*** | 1.42** | 1.36 | 1.37 |
| [1.61, 3.02] | [1.03, 1.95] | [0.99, 1.87] | [0.99, 1.89] | |
| Low birth weight | 1.85*** | 1.45*** | 1.41*** | 1.41*** |
| [1.67, 2.04] | [1.31, 1.60] | [1.27, 1.56] | [1.28, 1.56] | |
| Small for Gest. Agea | 1.69*** | 1.39*** | 1.37*** | 1.37*** |
| [1.44, 1.98] | [1.19, 1.64] | [1.17, 1.61] | [1.16, 1.61] | |
| NICU admission | 1.41*** | 1.14** | 1.13** | 1.13* |
| [1.28, 1.54] | [1.05, 1.26] | [1.03, 1.24] | [1.03, 1.24] | |
| Low 5-Min. Apgar (< 7) | 1.89*** | 1.30 | 1.30 | 1.30 |
| [1.43, 2.49] | [0.98, 1.73] | [0.98, 1.72] | [0.98, 1.72] | |
| Infant deathb | 1.75* | 1.15 | 1.09 | 1.09 |
| [1.06, 2.87] | [0.70, 1.91] | [0.66, 1.80] | [0.66, 1.81] | |
| Father characteristics | X | X | X | |
| Maternal characteristics and health | X | X | ||
| Health care access | X |
N = 347,234. Results are reported as odds ratio estimates. Asterisks denote statistically significant differences at the ***p < 0.001 **p < 0.01 *p < 0.05 levels from the reference group of those with no paternal incarceration in the gestational period or at birth. 95% confidence intervals are reported in brackets
Analysis restricted to full term births (37 weeks or later) (N = 323,821)
Analysis restricted to births in 2010–2015 because infant death data were not yet available for births in 2016 (N = 290,947). Model 1 is an unadjusted/bivariate model. Models 2–4 incrementally add covariates for the following sets of measures: (2) paternal age at birth, race/ethnicity, and education; (3) maternal age at birth, maternal race/ethnicity, education, body mass index, marital status at birth, indicators of prior low birthweight birth, prior preterm birth, maternal smoking during this pregnancy, pre-pregnancy hypertension, gestational hypertension, and gestational diabetes; (4) trimester of first prenatal care visit