Table 3.
Promising PPIs for generating well-being in a global pandemic.
| Reference, Country | Drozd et al. (2014), Norway | Feicht et al. (2013), Germany | Ivtzan et al. (2016), UK | Schotanus-Dijkstra et al. (2017), Netherlands |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sample | Healthy adults | Employees experiencing stress and high work demands at an insurance company | Healthy and mildly depressed adults (educators, office workers, meditators) | Adults with low/moderate well-being |
| PPI | “Better Days” multi-component training | Online multi-component “happiness training” for employees | Positive Mindfulness Program – mindfulness and positive psychology training | Multi-component, guided “positive self-help intervention” with email support |
| Delivery | Online | Online | Online | In person, online |
| Sessions, Duration | 13 10-min sessions, 4 weeks | 10–15 min weekly for 7 weeks | Approximately 30 minutes for each of 8 weekly sessions weekly over 8 weeks | Four hours per week for each of 9 weekly sessions, over 9 to 12 weeks |
| Assessment | Pre, post at 1-month, 2-month and 6-month follow-ups after intervention onset | Pre, post at 7 weeks, 4-week follow-up | Pre, post at 8 weeks, 1-month follow-up | Pre, post at 3 months, 6-month and 12-month follow-up |
| Topics Covered | Gratitude, engagement and pleasant activities, character strengths, acts of kindness, gratitude, mastery and reattribution, optimism, flow, gratitude, adaptation and attribution, stress and mindfulness | Gratitude, positive relationships, mindfulness, flow, strengths, good deeds, joy | Self-awareness, positive emotions, self-compassion, self-efficacy, strengths, autonomy, meaning, positive relationships, engagement (savoring) | Positive emotions, discovering strengths, use of strengths, flow, optimism, hope, self-compassion, resilience, positive relations |
| Well-being Measures | SHS, PANAS, LOT-R | VAS, WHO-5, FS | PHI, GQ6, SCS-short, APWB, GSE, MLQ-P, COS | MHC-SF, FS |
| Well-Being Outcomes | Improved happiness at post: d = 0.65 (medium) Improved ratio of positive to negative affect at post, and 2- and 6-month follow-ups. No significance for optimism as a mediator. |
Improved Happiness: Post: d = 0.93 (large) 4wks: d = 0.92 (large) Improved Satisfaction: Post: d = 1.17 (large) 4wks: d = 1.10 (large) Improved Flourishing: Post: d = 0.42 (medium) 4wks: d = 0.25 (small) Improved Quality of Life: Post: d = 1.06 (large) 4wks: d = 0.94 (large) |
Improved at one-month follow-up): Well-being: ηp2 = 0.124 (medium) Gratitude: ηp2 = 0.083 (medium) Self-compassion: ηp2 = 0.165 (medium) Compassion for others at post only. No significance for self-efficacy. |
Improved well-being: Post: d = 0.68 (medium) 6-month: d = 0.66 (medium) No significance for flourishing. |
| Other Measures | N/A | REQ, SWS, ANT | BDI-II, PSS | HADS- D; HADS-A |
| Other Outcomes | N/A | Reduced perceived stress at post, no significance in recovery experience, saliva, or attention networks. | Decreased perceived stress and depression at post and 1-month follow-up. | Decreased anxiety and depression at 3-month post, and 6-month and 12-month follow-ups. |
| Control Group | Waitlist | Waitlist | Waitlist | Waitlist |
Well-being measures: APWB, Psychological Well-being Autonomy Subscale; COS, Compassion For Others Scale; FS, The Flourishing Scale; GQ6: Gratitude Questionnaire, 6-item Form; GSE, Generalised Self-efficacy Scale; LOT-R, Life Orientation Test-Revised; MHC-SF, Mental Health Continuum-Short Form; MLQ-P, Meaning in Life Questionnaire-Presence Subscale; PANAS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; PHI, Pemberton Happiness Index; SCS-short, Self-compassion Scale; SHS, Subjective Happiness Scale; VAS, Visual Analog Scale; and WHO-5, WHO Well-being Index.
Other measures: ANT, Attention Network Test; BDI-II, Beck’s Depression Inventory-II; HADS-A, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Anxiety Subscale; HADS- D, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Depression Subscale; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; REQ, Recovery Experience Questionnaire; SPT, Subjective Probability Task; and SWS, The Stress Warning Signals Scale.