Table 3.

Diagnostic and therapeutic indications for choledochoscopy

Diagnostic indications	Therapeutic indications
Visual impression and visually-guided biopsies of: (1) Indeterminate biliary strictures (IBS); (2) Dominant strictures in primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC); and (3) IgG4-related sclerosing cholangitis (IgG4-SC)	Stone fragmentation: (1) Electrohydraulic lithotripsy (EHL); and (2) Laser lithotripsy (LL)
Precise preoperative mapping of the extent of tumor involvement in CCA	Ablative therapies in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA): (1) Radiofrequency ablation; (2) Photodynamic therapy; (3) Nd:YAG laser ablation; and (4) Argon plasma coagulation
Choledochal cysts	Cystic duct stent placement
Intraductal papillary neoplasms of the bile duct	Guidewire passage through strictures, surgically altered anatomy
Cholangioadenoma	Resection of ductal masses
Biliary papillomatosis	Retrieval of migrated ductal stents
Eosinophilic cholangitis	Gallbladder stenting and drainage
Biliary varices
Right Hepatic Artery Syndrome
Congenital pancreaticobiliary maljunction
Post-liver transplant ductal ischemia
Tissue sampling and visual evaluation for infections: (1) Cytomegalovirus; and (2) HIV
Evaluation of intrahepatic biliary tracts during minimally invasive surgery

HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus.