Table 2.
Students' perceptions of stakeholder groups or factors contributing to antimicrobial resistance.
| Level of perceived contribution |
Statistical analyses between levels of perceived contribution |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Groups / factors | C (%) | N (%) | U (%) | p (C vs N) | p (C vs U) | p (N vs U) |
| Doctors prescribing antimicrobials | 73.3 | 26.7 | 0 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Dentists prescribing antimicrobials | 42.2 | 50.0 | 7.8 | ns | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Veterinarians prescribing antimicrobials | 60.0 | 40.0 | 0 | 0.011 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Pharmaceutical representatives marketing antimicrobials | 38.9 | 53.3 | 7.8 | 0.011 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Use of antimicrobials by livestock producers to prevent disease | 71.1 | 22.2 | 6.7 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0051 |
| Use of antimicrobials by livestock producers to treat disease | 56.7 | 32.2 | 11.1 | 0.0016 | <0.0001 | 0.001 |
| Transmission of AMR in human hospitals (1) | 53.9 | 34.9 | 11.2 | 0.016 | <0.0001 | 0.0003 |
| Transmission of AMR in animal hospitals (2) | 48.9 | 38.9 | 12.2 | ns | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Using an antimicrobial when benefit to the patient is uncertain | 84.1 | 13.6 | 2.3 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0097 |
| Unnecessary use of broad-spectrum antimicrobials | 83.2 | 13.4 | 3.4 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.028 |
| Patients (human and animal) not finishing their prescribed course of antimicrobials | 82.1 | 16.9 | 1.1 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0003 |
| Patients (human and animal) using antimicrobials from previously unfinished prescriptions | 77.8 | 20.0 | 2.2 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0002 |
| Human patients requesting antimicrobials | 71.1 | 25.6 | 3.3 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Owners of animals requesting antimicrobials | 67.4 | 29.2 | 3.4 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Use of over-the-counter antimicrobials in humans | 64.5 | 24.4 | 11.1 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.031 |
| Use of over-the-counter antimicrobials in animals | 58.6 | 31.3 | 10.1 | 0.0003 | <0.0001 | 0.0007 |
| Long durations of antimicrobial treatment | 57.7 | 31.2 | 11.1 | 0.0005 | <0.0001 | 0.0017 |
| Too low a dose of antimicrobials used in treatment | 51.1 | 37.8 | 11.1 | ns | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Slow development of new antimicrobials | 27.8 | 60.0 | 12.2 | <0.0001 | 0.015 | <0.0001 |
| Antimicrobials are required for routine desexing of companion animals | 48.9 | 26.7 | 24.4 | 0.0033 | 0.0011 | ns |
| Antimicrobials are required for routine dental procedures in companion animals | 48.9 | 30.0 | 21.1 | 0.014 | 0.0002 | ns |
| Antimicrobials are required for surgeries to fix a broken bone in companion animals | 56.7 | 11.1 | 32.2 | <0.0001 | 0.0016 | 0.001 |
C = substantial / moderate contribution; N = small / no contribution; U = unsure; ns = not significant. There was no significant difference between (1) versus (2). Bolded signifies that over 20% of respondents are unsure.