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Proposed pathogenic mechanisms leading to severe COVID-19 outcomes in individuals with vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency. ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. References for evidence: cytokine production [41]; immune modulation [18, 29]; inflammation [53]; blood glucose concentration [149]; renin and angiotensin II levels [64]; and thromboembolic risk [104]
