Table 2.
Descriptions of included studies (N = 25).
| Author (year) | Location | Study design | Sample – size; mean age; gender (verbatim); race | Aim | Social support (measure used) | Outcome category (related measures) | Findings related to social support |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Koken et al. (2009) | New York (USA) | Qualitative (SSI) | 20; 32 years; 60% TW, 40% female; 100% POC | Explore experiences with caregivers | Parent/primary caregiver experience post TW identity disclosure | Well-being | Majority experience hostility, aggression and neglect |
| Erich et al. (2010) | USA | Quantitative (PS) | 108; 41years; 80% MTF, 20% FTM, 58% white | Examine racial differences in social support | Satisfaction of support across multiple sources | Well-being (SWLS, ISE) | Main effect for total social support: positive correlation with SWLS and ISE |
| Singh et al. (2011) | USA | Qualitative (SSI, FG) | 20; 34 years; 55% MTF; 40% TM; 5% XX male; 71% POC | Explore strategies of resilience | Participant-derived experiences of resilience | Well-being | Connection to supportive communities is a source of resilience |
| Bethea and Mccollum (2013) | USA | Qualitative (SSI) | 7; age not reported; 100% MTF; 100% white | Explore social experiences | Social experiences post TW identity disclosure | Well-being | Social support and comfort through TW peer support groups |
| Boza and Nicholson Perry (2014) | Australia | Quantitative (OS) | 243; 38 years; 66% AMAB, 34% AFAB, 94% white | Examine correlations between social support and depression | MSPSS | Health (CES-D) | Main effect for total perceived support: negative correlation with depression |
| Davey et al. (2014) | Midlands (England) | Quantitative (PS) | 103; 36 years; 61% TW, 39% TM; 95% white | Examine correlations between social support and well-being | MSPSS | Well-being (SF, PWI, SCL) | Main effect for total perceived support: positive correlation with SF and PWI |
| Graham et al. (2014) | Detroit (USA) | Qualitative (UI) | 10; 21 years; 100% TW; 80% POC | Explore familial and peer social support | Social experiences post gender transition | Well-being | Fractious relationships with biological family, TW peer support enables identity affirmation and kinship |
| Budge et al. (2014) | USA | Quantitative (OS) | 64; 30 years; 100% GQ; 86% white | Examine correlations between social support, anxiety and depression | MSPSS | Health (CES-D, BA) | Main effect for total perceived support: negative correlation with CES-D and BA |
| Claes et al. (2015) | UK | Quantitative (PS) | 155; 34 years; 66.5% TW, 33.5% TM; no race data | Examine correlations between social support and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) | MSPSS | Health (SIQ) | Main effect for family: negative correlation with NSSI |
| Bauer et al. (2015) | Ontario (Canada) | Quantitative, (OS) | 380; 32 years; 53% FTM spectrum, 47% MTF spectrum; 77% white | Examine correlations between social support and suicidality | MOS | Health (suicidal ideation and attempts) | Main effect for total perceived support and support from parents: negative correlation with suicidality |
| Pflum et al. (2015) | North America (77% urban) | Quantitative (OS) | 865; 33 years; 51% TMS; 49% TFS; 90% white | Examine correlations between social support, depression and anxiety | BSSS, GMSR | Health (CES-D, GAD-7) | Main effect for BSSS and GMSR (TFS only): negative correlation with CES-D and GAD-7 |
| Yang et al. (2015) | Shenyang (China) | Quantitative (I-PS) | 209; 26 years; 100% TW; 100% POC | Examine correlations between social support and depression | MSPSS | Health (SDS) | Main effect for total perceived support: negative correlation with SDS |
| Barr et al. (2016) | USA (87% urban) | Quantitative (OS) | 571; 30 years; 38% male, 37% female, 25% NB; 80% white | Examine correlation between TGDNB belongingness and well-being | LCBS (adapted as TGDNB belongingness) | Well-being (RSES, SWLS, SPWB) | Mediating effect for TGDNB belongingness: strength of TGDNB identity and well-being (RSES, SWLS, SPWB) |
| Başar & Öz (2016) | Ankara (Turkey) | Quantitative (PS) | 116; 25 years; 75% TM, 25% TW; no race data | Examine correlations between social support and resilience | MSPSS | Well-being (RSA) | Main effect for total and friend-support: positive correlation with RSA |
| Başar et al. (2016) | Ankara (Turkey) | Quantitative (I-PS) | 94; 27 years; 77% TM, 23% TW; no race data | Examine correlations between social support and quality of life | MSPSS | Well-being (WHOQOL-24) | Main effect for friend: positive correlation on three WHOQOL domains; main effect for family: positive correlation on one domain |
| Klein and Golub (2016) | USA | Quantitative (OS) | 3458; 36 years; 61% AMAB; 39% AFAB; 36% reported NB identity; 77.5% white | Examine correlations between interpersonal rejection and suicidality | Level of reported interpersonal rejection | Health (suicidality and substance use) | Main risk for interpersonal rejection: positive correlation with suicidality and substance use |
| Davey et al. (2016) | UK | Quantitative (PS) | 97; 35 years; 62% TW; 37% TM; 88.7% white | Examine correlations between social support and NSSI | MSPSS | Health (SIQ-TR) | Main effect for total perceived support: negative association with current NSSI |
| Budge et al. (2017) | USA | Qualitative (SSI) | 15; 40 years; 40% MTF; 27% FTM; 27% GQ/ NB, 7% ‘MFTS’; 66% POC | Exploration of facilitative coping | Participant derived facilitative coping processes | Well-being | Attending peer support groups and helping TGDNB others enables facilitative coping |
| Scandurra et al. (2017) | Italy (87% urban) | Quantitative (OS) | 149; 33 years; 33; 51% FTM; 49% MTF; 98% white | Examine correlations between social support and mental health | MSPSS | Health (CES-D; BAI) | Main effect for family support: negative correlation with BAI and CES-D; moderating effect for family: everyday discrimination and both CES-D and BAI |
| Trujillo et al. (2017) | USA | Quantitative (OS) | 78; 29 years; 33% TM, 37% TW; 30% gender other than the two; 62% white | Examine correlations between social support and mental health | MSPSS | Health (HSCL-25; SBQ; HHRDS) | Main effect for significant other: negative association with depression; moderating effect for friends and significant other: discrimination and SBQ |
| Clark et al. (2018) | Los Angeles (USA) | Quantitative (AS) | 271; 35 years; 100% TW; 72% POC | Examine correlations between social networks and hormone use | Social network dynamics | Health (hormone misuse) | Correlation between no. of friends using hormones and hormone misuse, using the Internet to find friends mitigates risk |
| Fuller and Riggs (2018) | USA | Quantitative (OS) | 345; 27 years; 32% male, 25% NB, 25% female, 13% another gender, 5% agenda; 75% white | Examine correlations between social support and resilience | MSPSS, gender-related family support (study specific) | Wellbeing (BRS, K10) | Main effect for total perceived support: negative correlations with psychological distress; main effect for family: positive correlation with resilience; main effect for gender-related family support: BRS, K10; mediating effect for gender-related family support: discrimination and K10 |
| Carter et al. (2019) | USA | Quantitative (OS) | 298; 48 years; 87% TW; 13% TM; 90% white | Examine social support as a moderator between discrimination and suicide | MSPSS (modified) | Health (suicidal ideation) | Main effect for friends (general and TGDNB-specific): negative association with suicidal ideation (SI); moderating effect for TGDNB friends: discrimination and SI |
| Hwahng et al. (2019) | New York (USA) | Qualitative (SSI, FG) | 13; 38 years; 100% TW; 100% POC | Exploration of resilience | Experiences within TW peer support groups | Well-being | Social bonds formed in TGDNB support groups enable resilience and health-promoting behavior |
| McDowell et al. (2019) | Boston (USA) | Quantitative (I-PS) | 150; 27 years; trans masculine (76.7% had a binary gender identity); 75% white | Examine correlations between social support and mental health | MOS | Health (PC-PTSD, BSI) | No significant effect in overall model for PTSD, anxiety or depression |
Notes: Acronyms used in the table:
Study design: AS: audio survey, FG: focus group, I-PS: in-person survey, OS: online survey, PS: posted survey, SSI: semi-structured interviews, UI: unstructured interviews.
Sample: AFAB: assigned female at birth, AMAB: assigned male at birth, FTM: female-to-male, GQ: gender queer, MTF: male-to-female, NB: non-binary, POC: people of color, TFS: trans feminine spectrum, TM: transgender men, TMS: trans masculine spectrum, TW: transgender women.
Measures: BA: Burns Anxiety Inventory, BAI: Beck Anxiety Inventory, BDI: Beck Depression Inventory, BRS: Brief Resilience Scale, BSI: Brief Symptom Inventory, BSSS: Berlin Social Support Scales, CES-D: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, ETS: Experiences of Transphobia Scale; GAD-7: Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item Scale, GMSR: Gender Minority and Resilience Measure (community connectedness subscale), HHRDS: Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection and Discrimination Scale, HSCL-25: Hopkins Symptoms Checklist 25, ISE: Index of Self-Esteem, K10: The Kessler 10, LCBS: Lesbian Community Belongingness Scale, MOS: Medical Outcomes Study, MSPSS: Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, PC-PTSD: Primary Care PTSD Scale, PWI: Personal Wellbeing Index, RSA: Resilience Scale for Adults, RSES: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, SBQ: Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire, SCL: Symptom Checklist 90 Revised, SDS: Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, SIQ-TR: Self Injury Questionnaire- Treatment Related, SF: Short Form 36 version 2, STIS: Strength of Transgender Identity Scale, SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale, SPWB: Scale of Psychological Wellbeing, TCB: Transgender Community Belongingness Scale, WHOQOL-24: World Health Organization’s Quality of Life (24 items).