Table 1.
The collective studies on OVs.
| Virus | Cancer | Model | Effects | Mechanism | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adenovirus | Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | Murine | Ad-derived IL-12p70 prevents the destruction of HER2.CAR-expressing T cells at the tumor site. | Enhanced antitumor effects of HER2 CAR T cells by CAd12_PDL1 Controlling of primary tumor growth and metastasis. |
Shaw et al., 2017 (12) |
| Renal cell carcinoma | Murine | HRE-Ki67-Decorin suppressed tumor growth and induced decorin expression in the extracellular matrix (ECM) assembly. | An effective anticancer treatment strategy may be chimeric HRE-Ki67 promoter-regulated Ad carrying decorin. | Zhang et al., 2020 (13) | |
| Lung cancer stem cell (LCSC) | Murine | Tumor necrosis factor (ZD55-TRAIL) increased cytotoxicity and induced A549 sphere cells apoptosis through a mitochondrial pathway | Treatment of lung cancer is possible by targeting LCSCs with armed oncolytic adenovirus genes. | Yang et al., 2015 (14) | |
| Leukemia | Murine | Induction of autophagic cell death Enhanced cell killing in primary leukemic blasts |
Significant autophagic cell death | Tong et al., 2013 (15) | |
| Breast cancer | Murine | Tumor killing due to Sox2 and oct4 expression and Hoechst 33342 exclusion CD44+CD24−/low cells |
A positive effect against advanced orthotopic was that CD44+CD24−/low-derived tumors were observed. | Eriksson et al., 2007 (16) | |
| Breast cancer | Murine | Delta24 can replicate and help the E1-deleted adenovector replicate in cancer cells | Spontaneous liver metastasis with Delta 24 virus therapy alone was less reduced than in combination with TRAIL gene therapy. | Guo et al., 2006 (17) | |
| Liver cancer stem-like cells | Murine | Significant apoptosis Inhibition angiogenesis in xenograft tumor tissues Inhibition of the propagation of cells occurred due to GD55 |
GD55 had a higher effect in suppressing tumor growth than oncolytic adenovirus ZD55. | Zhang et al., 2016 (18) | |
| B16F10 | Murine | Infiltration of effector CD4+ and CD8+ T cells Increasing secretion of TNF-α and IFN-γ |
Activation the immune system Creating a proinflammatory environment |
Wei et al., 2020 (19) | |
| αvβ6-positive tumor cell lines of pancreatic and breast cancer | Murine | Cells expressing high levels of αvβ6 (BxPc, PANC0403, Suit2) were killed more efficiently by oncolytic Ad5NULL-A20 than by oncolytic Ad5 | Ad5NULL-A20-based virotherapies efficiently target αvβ6-integrin-positive tumors | Davies et al., 2021 (20) | |
| Advanced metastatic tumors | Murine | Increase in CD8+ T cells Reduction of IFN-γ secretion |
Specific immunity against tumor | Cerullo et al., 2010 (21) | |
| Breast cancer | Murine | Inflammation and neutrophil infiltration due to oncolytic adenovirus-GM-CSF. | Ad5/3-D24-GMCSF, combined with low-dose CP showed efficacy and antitumor activity | Bramante et al., 2016 (22) | |
| Solid tumors | Murine | CD8 cytotoxicity viruses efficiently lysed tumors | Significantly prolonged survival | Gürlevik et al., 2010 (23) | |
| Metastatic ductal breast cancer | Murine | Each virus featured 5/3 chimerism of a promoter controlling the expression of E1A and fiber, which was also deleted in the Rb binding domain for additional tumor selectivity | These viruses completely eradicated CD44+ low CD24−/cells in vitro
Significant antitumor activity in CD44+ CD24−/low-derived tumors in vivo |
Bauerschmitz et al., 2008 (24) | |
| Metastatic melanoma | In vitro | Activation and an increased costimulatory capacity of monocyte-derived antigen-presenting cells | A valuable immunotherapeutic agent for melanoma is ORCA-010 | González et al., 2020 (25) | |
| Gastric cancer MKN45 and MKN7 cells |
Murine | Cell death in stem cells such as CD133 resident cancer by stimulating cell-cycle-related proteins | Killing cancer cells | Yano et al., 2013 (26) | |
| Herpesvirus | Bearing M3-9-M tumors | Murine | Increasing the incidence of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and no correlation with the CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T-cell populations in the tumor | An efficient therapy strategy for soft tissue sarcoma in childhood | Chen et al., 2017 (27) |
| Breast cancer | Murine | Regulation of CD8+ T cell activation markers in the tumor microenvironment Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis |
Tumor regression Anticancer immune response |
Ghouse et al., 2020 (28) | |
| Colon carcinoma | Murine | Decreased inhibitory immune cells Increased positive immune cells in the spleen. |
Generate tumor-specific immunity Elimination of primary tumors Developing immune memory to inhibit tumor recurrence and metastasis. |
Zhang et al., 2020 (29) | |
| Ovarian carcinoma | Murine | DC maturation and tumor infiltration of INF-γ+ CTL | The antitumor immune responses are facilitated | Benencia et al. 2008 (30) |
|
| Tumor | Murine | T-cell responses against primary or metastatic tumors | Antitumor immune response Prevention of tumor growth |
Li et al., 2007 (31) | |
| STING low-metastatic melanoma | Murine | Release of DAMP factors Release of IL-1β and inflammatory cytokines Induction of host antitumor immunity |
Induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) Recruitment of viral and tumor-antigen-specific CD8+ T cells STING expression as a predictive biomarker of T-Vec Response |
Bommareddy et al., 2019 (32) | |
| Osteosarcoma cells | Murine | Antitumor efficacy in vivo
Inducing antitumor immunity |
The in vitro cytolytic properties of OVs are poor prognostic indicators of effective cancer virotherapy and in vivo antitumor activity | Sobol et al., 2011 (33) | |
| HCT8 human colon cancer cells | Murine | Cytotoxicity, viral replication, and Akt1 expression | Therapy of TIC-induced tumors with NV1066 slowed tumor growth and yielded tumor regression | Warner et al., 2016 (34) | |
| Glioblastoma-derived cancer stem-like cells (GBM-SC) | Murine | Infection with HSV G47Delta killed GBM-SCs and inhibited their self-renewal and the inability of viable cells to form secondary tumor spheres | Significant anti-tumor effect against xenografts in mice and effective killing of CSCs in vitro | Wakimoto et al., 2009 (35) | |
| Solid tumors | Human | The induction of adaptive antitumor immune responses | All patients were seropositive. No local recurrence was observed in patients and disease-specific survival was 82.4% | Harrington et al., 2010 (36) | |
| Breast, head and neck, and gastrointestinal cancers, and malignant melanoma | Human | Induction of adaptive anti-tumor immune responses | Biopsies contained residual tumor was observed in 19 patients after treatment that 14 of them showed tumor necrosis (extensive, or apoptosis) | Hu et al., 2006 (37) | |
| Metastatic melanoma | Human | ICP47 deletion increases US11 expression and enhances virus growth and replication in tumor cells | Overall survival at 12 and 24 months were 58% and 52%, respectively. | Senzer et al., 2009 (38) | |
| Measles virus | Solid tumor | Murine | GOS/MV-Edm significantly increases viral replication in tumor mass | Increased survival in passive antiserum immunized tumor-bearing mice | Xia et al., 2019 (39) |
| Orthotopic glioma tumor spheres and primary colon cancer | Murine | Overexpression of the CD133 target receptor or increased kinetics of proliferation through tumor cells | CD133-targeted measles viruses selectively removed CD133þ cells from tumor tissue | Bach et al., 2013 (40) | |
| Mesothelioma | Murine | Infiltration of CD68+ cells innate immune cells. | Oncolytic MVs is versatile and potent agents for the treatment of human mesothelioma. | Li et al., 2010 (41) | |
| Multiple myeloma | Murine | Induction of adaptive anti-tumor immune responses | Virus-infected T cells may induce systemic measles virus therapy in the presence of ABS antivirus. | Ong et al., 2007 (42) | |
| Breast cancer | In vitro | Inducing apoptosis | Induction of cell death leads to infection of breast cancer cells with rMV-BNiP | Lal and Rajala et al., 2019 (43) | |
| Breast cancer | In vitro | Increased percentage of apoptotic cells in infected MCF-7 cells | Significant apoptosis in breast cancer cell lines. | Abdullah et al., 2020 (44) | |
| T-cell lymphomas (CTCLs) | Human | An increase in the IFN-γ/CD4 and IFN-γ/CD8 mRNA ratio and a reduced CD4/CD8 ratio | MV can affect CTCL treatment. | Heinzerling et al., 2005 (45) | |
| Newcastle disease virus | Lung cancer | Murine | Caspase-dependent apoptosis associated with increased caspase-3 processing and ADP-ribose polymerase cleavage. | A potential strategy for targeting lung CSCs | Hu et al., 2015 (46) |
| B16 melanoma | Murine | Treatment with systemic CTLA-4 blockade was due to long-term survival and tumor rejection | Distant tumors are prone to systemic therapy with immunomodulatory antibodies using localized therapy with oncolytic NDV | Zamarin et al., 2014 (47) | |
| Lung cancer | Murine | DAMP release Autophagy induction |
Inhibited tumor growth Trigger ICD |
Ye et al., 2018 (48) | |
| GBM | Murine | GBM susceptibility to NDV is dependent on the loss of the type I IFN | Trigger the activation of immune cells against the tumor and show oncolytic effect | García-Romero et al., 2020 (49) | |
| Vaccinia virus | Melanoma | Murine | PD-L1 inhibition Neoantigen presentation |
Tumor neoantigen-specific T-cell responses | Wang et al., 2020 (50) |
| Solid tumors | Murine | Activated the inflammatory immune status | Complete tumor regression long-term tumor-specific immune memory |
Nakao et al., 2020 (51) | |
| Solid cancer | Murine | Replication was activated by EGFR/Ras pathway signaling, cellular TK levels, and cancer cell resistance to IFNs | Selectively cell lysis and stimulation of antitumoral immunity | Parato et al., 2012 (52) | |
| M1 virus | Melanoma | Murine | CD8+ T-cell-dependent therapeutic effects long-term antitumor immune memory Upregulating the expression of PD-L1 |
Immunogenic tumor cell death Restores the ability of dendritic cells to prime antitumor T cells |
Yang Liu et al., 2020 (11) |
| Bladder tumor | Murine | Inhibition of CCDC6 improve viral replication and then induced endoplasmic reticulum stress to facilitate M1 virus oncolytic effects. | CCDC6 inhibition resulted in better antitumor activity | Liu et al., 2021 (53) | |
| Poxvirus | MC-38 colon adenocarcinoma tumors | Murine | Elicited TILs with lower quantities of exhausted PD-1hiTim-3+ CD8+ T cells and regulatory T cells | Tumor regression and improved survival | Mathilde et al., 2020 (54) |
| Poliovirus | Breast cancer | Murine | Primary oncolytic viral receptors are highly expressed in tumor cells and transmitted among cells. | Oncolytic PV recombinants may affect tumor cells by viral receptor CD155 | Ochiai et al., 2004 (55) |
| Reovirus | Solid tumor | Murine | Induction of Golgi fragmentation and accumulation of oncogenic Ras in the Golgi body | Initiating apoptotic signaling events required for virus release and spread. | Garant et al., 2016 (56) |
| Adenovirus (Ad), Semliki Forest virus (SFV) and Vaccinia virus (VV) | Osteosarcoma | Murine | Activates immunogenic apoptosis Triggering phagocytosis and maturation of DCs Th1-cytokine release by DCs and antigen-specific T-cell activation. |
Induction of T-cell-mediated antitumor immune responses. Increased cell death processes |
Jing Ma et al., 2020 (57) |
PD-L1, programmed death-ligand 1; Ad, adenovirus; MV, measles virus; GBM, glioblastoma; NDV, Newcastle disease virus; VV, Vaccina virus; Th, T helper; ICD, immunogenic cell death; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; TK, thymidine kinase; IFN-I, type-I interferon; HSV, herpes simplex viruses; TIL, tumor infiltration lymphocyte; DC, dendritic cells; BHV, bovine herpesvirus; DAMP, damage-associated molecular pattern; Trail, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand; GD-55, GOLPH2-regulated oncolytic adenovirus; GOS, graphene oxide arms PV, polio virus; LAPV, Israeli acute paralysis virus; CP, cisplatin; GM-CSF, granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor.