Table 1.
Articles included in this special issue (N = 23)
| Article | Sample size | Age range | Population | Methodology | Measurement of ES | Moderators/mediators | Child outcome(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Berla et al. (2021) | 46 | 11–17 years | 83% with a mood disorder 63% female Child: 26% Asian, 7% Latinx, 13% multiracial/other, 54% White |
Cross-sectional Standardized Task |
Expressed Emotion and Criticism During Five-Minute Speech Sample (clinician-rated) and Levels of Expressed Emotion Scale (parent-rated) | Child Emotion Regulation (child-reported DERS; mediator) | Depression symptoms (clinical interview with child and parent) |
| Breaux et al. (2021) | 18 | 11–16 years | 100% with ADHD 30% female Child: 55.6% Black, 11.1% Latinx, 5.6% multiracial, 38.9% White |
Cross-sectional Standardized Task Psychophysiology (RSA) |
Supportive and Non-Supportive Parenting During Conflict Discussion Task (coded) | N/A | Emotion regulation (coded, RSA) Negative Affect (coded, child-report) |
| Byrd et al. (2021) | 162 | 10–14 years | Clinically Referred Sample 47% female Child: 0.6% American Indian/Alaskan Native, 40.7% Black, 3.7% Hispanic/Latino, 16.7% multiracial, 42% White |
Longitudinal (9 months) EMA |
Supportive and Non-Supportive Parenting using ESM (child report), EMA (child and parent report), and Conflict Discussion Task (clinician coded) | Child Negative Emotionality (child-reported EMA; mediator) | Reactive aggression (child-reported EMA) |
| Cohodes et al. (2021) | 407 | 0–17 years | Community Sample 52.8% female Parent: 9.8% Asian, 8.1% Black, 5.9% Latinx, 2.0% Native American, 72.2% Non-Hispanic White, 1.7% other |
Cross-sectional Measure Development |
Parental assistance in regulation of child emotions (parent-report) | N/A | Internalizing and externalizing problems (parent-report) |
| Cosgrove et al. (2020) | 33 | 14–16 years | Community Sample 55.9% female Child: 10.2% Black,, 8.5% Multiple Races, 81.4% White |
Cross-sectional fMRI during Standardized Tasks | EAC (child-report) Parent Negative Verbalizations during Conflict Discussion Task (coded) |
N/A | Neural emotion processing (fMRI) |
| Dunbar et al. (2021) | 94 | 5 years (T1), 6 years (T2) | Community Sample 56% female Child:100% Black or multiracial including Black |
Longitudinal (1 year) Psychophysiology (RSA) |
CCNES (parent-report) | Child preparation for racial bias and baseline RSA (moderators) | Internalizing and externalizing problems (parent-report) |
| Fredrick and Luebbe (2021) | 107 | 11–14 years | Community Sample 45.8% female Child: 1.9% Asian, 3.7% Black, 12.1% Mixed Race, 82.2% White |
Cross-sectional Standardized Task |
RAHAS and PBI (parent and child report) MPES (child-report) | Child temperamental shyness and gender (moderators) | Fears of Social Evaluation (negative and positive evaluation; child-report) |
| Johnco et al. (2021) | 139 | 6–18 years | 100% with an anxiety disorder Child: 18.0% Hispanic, 86.3% White |
Cross-sectional | PBA-Q (parent-report) | Parental Accommodation (parent-report; mediator) | Pediatric Anxiety Rating Scale (clinician-report) |
| Jordan et al. (2021) | 88 | 8–15 years | 72.7% diagnosed with ASD and co-occurring anxiety disorders 28.4% female Child: 5.7% Asian, 6.8% Black, 20.5% Latinx, 10.2% multracial, 77.3% White |
Cross-sectional | CCNES (parent-report) | N/A | Multidimensional Anxiety Rating Scale (parent and child report) |
| McKee et al. (2021) | 229 | 3–12 years | Community Sample 51% female Child: 3.1% Asian, 7% Black, 5.7% Latinx, 83.8% White |
Longitudinal (4 months) | CCNES, DERS, and MAAS (parent-report) | Child age (moderator) | Emotion regulation (ERC) and Internalizing and externalizing problems (parent-report) |
| McKone et al. (2021) | 97 | 11–13 years | Community Sample 100% female Child: 69% White |
Cross-sectional Psychophysiology (SCL) Standardized Task |
SCL during Conflict Discussion Task (mutual arousal between mother–daughter) | N/A | Emotion regulation (physiological habituation to Speech Task, child-reported rumination and problem-solving) |
| McQuade et al. (2021) | 61 | 9–13 years (T1), 14–18 years (T2) | 49.2% with full or sub-threshold ADHD 52% female Child: 5% Asian American, 8% Latinx, 7% mixed race, 88% White |
Longitudinal (4–5 years) Psychophysiology (SCL) Standardized Task |
CCNES (parent-report) | SCL (moderator) | BPD symptoms (child and parent report) |
| Moffitt et al. (2021) | 77 | 6–10 years | 100% with ASD 16.8% female Child: 5% Asian, 5% Black, 47% Latinx, 8% multi-racial, 3% other, 33% White |
Cross-sectional Psychophysiology (RSA, EDA-R) Standardized Task |
CCNES (parent-report) Parental Scaffolding during Dyadic Problem-Solving Task (coded) |
N/A | RSA, EDA-R |
| Oddo et al. (2020) | 247 | 13 years (T1), 14 years (T2), 15 years (T3) | Community Sample 43.7% female Child: 1.6% Asian, 37.7% Black, 8.2% other, 52.5% White |
Longitudinal (2 years) | DERS (parent-report) | CCNES (parent-report; mediator) Child ADHD symptoms (parent-report; moderator) |
Emotional lability (ERC; parent-report) |
| Otterpohl et al. (2021) | 634 | 10–14 years; Grade 6 (T1), Grade 7 (T2), Grade 9 (T3) | Community Sample 49.4% female Child: predominantly Caucasian with German nationality |
Longitudinal (3 years) Cross-lag Model |
EAC (parent-report) | N/A | Internalizing and externalizing problems (parent and child-report) Dysfunctional Anger Regulation (parent-report) |
| Price and Kiel (2021) | 175 | 2 years (T1), 3 years (T2), 4 years (T3) | Community Sample 42.9% female Child: 1.1% Asian or Pacific Islander, 1.7% Black, 1.1% Latinx, 9.1% multi-racial, 80% White |
Longitudinal (2 years) Standardized Task |
DERS and CTNES (parent-report) | CTNES (parent-report, mediator) Caregiver-focused emotion regulation (coded, mediator) |
Anxiety symptoms (parent-report) |
| Rapp et al. (2021) | 90 | 13–17 years | Community Sample 42.2% female Child: 24.1% Asian, 38.6% Latinx, 37.3% White |
Cross-sectional EEG during Standardized Task |
ESM (parent-report) | Child collectivism (moderator) | Feedback-related negativity during Island Getaway paradigm |
| Smit et al. (2021) | 172 | 6–11 years | 100% with ADHD 30% female Child: 5.8% Asian, 0.5% Black, 1.2% Latinx, 18.6% multi-racial, 72.7% White |
Intervention (pre-treatment, post-treatment, 8 months follow-up) Cross-lagged Model |
Parent emotion strategies, warmth, praise, and criticism during child coaching before and after child-friend interaction (coded) | N/A | Positive affect (coded) Withdrawn/depressed and aggressive behaviors (parent and teacher-report) |
| Trent et al. (2021) | 105 | 8–12 years | 100% Clinically Anxious Sample 57.1% female Child: 1.9% Asian, 14.3% Black, 28.6% Hispanic, 17.1% multiracial, 38.1% non-Hispanic White |
Cross-sectional Standardized Task | CCNES (parent-report) | Child fearful temperament (child-report; moderator) | Social anxiety symptoms (child-report and coded during speech performance task) |
| Valentino et al. (2021) | 242 | 3–6 years | 66% Maltreating Families 49.2% female Child: 40.5% Black, 19.0% Latinx/Other, 40.5% White |
Intervention (baseline, 8 weeks follow-up, 6 months follow-up, 1 year follow-up) Standardized Task |
Maternal Sensitive Guidance during Emotion Discussion Task (coded) | Maternal Sensitive Guidance during Emotion Discussion Task (coded; mediator)a | Maladjustment rated via Total Difficulties score on SDQ (parent-report) |
| Wade et al. (2021) | 501 | 0–2 months (T1), 18 months (T2), 36 months (T3) | Community Sample Maternal parent: 26.6% Asian. 9.2% Black, 7.7% other, 56.5% White |
Longitudinal (3 years) Standardized Task |
Maternal responsiveness and Negative affect/Negative Control (coded) | Maternal responsiveness and Negative affect/Negative (mediators)b | Internalizing and externalizing problems (parent-report) |
| Watson et al. (2021) | 116 | 9–15 years | 50% of mothers had ≥ 1 MDD episode during child’s lifetime 44% female children Child: 3% Asian, 25% Black, 5% Latinx, 67% White |
Cross-sectional Standardized Task |
Coping Socialization During Discussion |
Maternal Depression and Child Peer Stress | Internalizing symptoms (child and parent report) |
| White et al. (2021) | 90 | 12–17 years | 73.3% of sample met criteria for ≥ 1 mental health diagnoses (61.8% with a depressive disorder, 50.6% with an anxiety disorder, 20.2% with a trauma and stressor-related disorder) 100% female Child: 3.3% Asian, 7.8% Black, 10.0% Latinx, 3.3% Native American, 75.6% White |
Cross-sectional | EAC (parent-report) | N/A | Non-suicidal self-injury (child report via structured interview) |
DERS Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, ADHD attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, RSA respiratory sinus arrhythmia, EMA ecological momentary assessment, ESM Emotion Socialization Measure, fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging, EAC Emotions as a Child, CCNES Coping with Children’s Negative Emotions Scale, RAHAS Response to Adolescents’ Happy Affect Scale, PBI Parental Bonding Instrument, MPES Messages about Positive Evaluation Scale, PBA-Q Parental Beliefs About Anxiety Questionnaire, ASD autism spectrum disorder, MAAS Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale, ERC Emotion Regulation Checklist, SCL skin conductance level, BPD borderline personality disorder, EDA-R electrodermal reactivity, CTNES Coping with Toddlers’ Negative Emotions Scale, EEG electroencephalogram, SDQ Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, MDD major depressive disorder, T1 time point 1, T2 time point 2, T3 time point 3
a
The independent variables in this study were maltreatment, Reminiscing and Emotion Training, and maternal depressive symptoms, the emotion socialization variable was the mediator in analyses
b
Maternal responsiveness and Negative affect/Negative were also explored as mediators of the relations between family income and maternal education on child outcomes