Table 2.
Description of 30 electronic tools for communicable diseases surveillance used in Africa from January 2010 to December 2020.
| Name of tool and descriptiona | Society affiliation | Attributesb (N=15), n (%) | |
| DHIS2c [16] | |||
|
|
DHIS is an open-source software platform for the reporting, analysis, and dissemination of data for all health programs. DHIS2 is typically used as a national health information system for data management and analysis purposes, for health program monitoring and evaluation, as facility registries and service availability mapping, and for logistics management, and for mobile tracking of pregnant mothers in rural communities. | The Health Information Systems Program at the University of Oslo | 14 (93) |
| SORMASd [17-20] | |||
|
|
SORMAS is an open-source mobile eHealth system that processes disease control and outbreak management procedures in addition to surveillance and early detection of outbreaks through real-time digital surveillance, including peripheral health care facilities and laboratories. SORMAS adheres to data standards and enhances technical and contextual interoperability with other systems. | Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany | 14 (93) |
| Go.Data [21] | |||
|
|
Go.Data is an outbreak investigation tool for field data collection during public health emergencies. The tool includes functionality for case investigation, contact follow-up, and visualization of chains of transmission, including secure data exchange, and is designed for flexibility in the field to adapt to the wide range of outbreak scenarios. The tool is targeted at any outbreak responder. | World Health Organization | 14 (93) |
| CommCare [22] | |||
|
|
CommCare is an open-source mobile platform designed for data collection, client management, decision support, and behavior change communication. It is used by client-facing community health workers during visits as a data collection and educational tool and includes optional audio, image, and video prompts. | Dimagi, Inc Mobile Solutions for International Development | 14 (93) |
| Epi Info [23] | |||
|
|
Epi Info is a public-domain suite of interoperable software tools designed for the global community of public health practitioners and researchers. It provides easy data entry forms and database construction, a customized data entry experience, and data analyses with epidemiological statistics, maps, and graphs for public health professionals who may lack an information technology background. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) | 13 (87) |
| eIDSRe [24] | |||
|
|
eIDSR is an electronic disease surveillance and response system using mobile technology and interactive voice response. eIDSR was developed by leveraging the expertise of DHIS2 to customize a comprehensive eIDSR module on the platform. | The Ministry of Health Rwanda Biomedical Center and USAID’s Rwanda Health Systems Strengthening Project led by Management Sciences for Health | 13 (87) |
| KoBoToolbox [25] | |||
|
|
KoBoToolbox is a free and open-source suite of tools for data collection and analysis in humanitarian emergencies and other challenging environments. Most users are people working in humanitarian crises, aid professionals and researchers working in low-income countries. | Harvard Humanitarian Initiative | 13 (87) |
| Voozanoo [26] | |||
|
|
The Voozanoo platform is used for research (cohorts, epidemiological, or clinical studies), epidemiological surveillance, alert and response to epidemics, and prevention, screening, or coordination of care (computerized patient record and medical databases). | Epiconcept | 13 (87) |
| Epicollect5 [27] | |||
|
|
Epicollect5 is a mobile and web-based application for free and easy data collection. It provides modules for the generation of forms and freely hosted project websites. Data are collected (including GPS and media) using multiple devices, and all data can be viewed on a central server (via maps, tables, and charts). | Centre for Genomic Pathogen Surveillance | 13 (87) |
| ODKf [28] | |||
|
|
ODK lets you build powerful offline forms to collect the data you need wherever it is. It supports geolocations, images, audio clips, video clips, and bar codes, as well as numerical and textual answers. ODK can evaluate complex logic to control the display prompts and impose constraints on their responses; it also supports groups of repetitive questions and data collection in multiple languages. | ODK Collect data anywhere | 13 (87) |
| EWARSg [29,30] | |||
|
|
EWARS is designed to improve disease outbreak detection in emergency settings, such as in countries in conflict or following a natural disaster. It is a simple and cost-effective way to rapidly set up a disease surveillance system. | World Health Organization | 12 (80) |
| SurveyCTO [31] | |||
|
|
SurveyCTO is a reliable, secure, and scalable mobile data collection platform for researchers and professionals working in offline settings. | Dobility | 12 (80) |
| Afyadata [32] | |||
|
|
Afyadata is an open-source tool for collecting and submitting data from health facilities to the main server and receiving feedback from the main server. The tool provides a graphical user interface for involved health stakeholders to analyze and visualize data. It is a customized version of ODK, which has the best form management modules. | The Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance Foundation for One Health | 12 (80) |
| REDCaph [33] | |||
|
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REDCap is a tool for data collectors needing to capture data offline. Data can be collected on an iPhone, iPad, Android phone, or tablet. | Vanderbilt University Medical Center | 12 (80) |
| Magpi [34] | |||
|
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Magpi can be used to create forms that are responsive and look great on Android and iOS mobile and tablets in any language. It captures better data using GPS, near-field communication, signatures, bar codes, photographs, and other form responses. | Magpi | 11 (73) |
| Incident Tracker [35] | |||
|
|
Incident Tracker is a comprehensive way to report, track, and trend incidents. It works directly with numerous health care agencies. Incident Tracker uses the Microsoft Azure platform for the industry’s highest security and data protection levels. | McKula Inc | 10 (67) |
| Meningitis platform | |||
|
|
Meningitis Platform is used in Morocco for the surveillance of meningitis cases. It was developed in-country and is commonly known as meningitis platform. We identified this tool through the telephone survey, and it has no official website. | Ministry of Health (Morocco) | 9 (60) |
| Coconut plus (coconut surveillance) [36] | |||
|
|
Coconut Surveillance is a free and open-source software designed for malaria elimination. There are no licensing fees, and it is available at no cost. It includes an interactive SMS text messaging for case notification, a mobile software app designed to guide mobile case workers, and an analytics software app designed for surveillance and response program managers. | Research Triangle Institute International in collaboration with the President’s Malaria Initiative the Zanzibar Malaria Elimination Program. | 9 (60) |
| NMCSSi [37] | |||
|
|
NMCSS is a tool for reporting notifiable medical conditions by all health professionals (nurses, doctors, and pathologists). The app allows for real-time reporting of infectious diseases at the point of diagnosis to local, district, provincial, and national health authorities, facilitating timely communication among all CDC personnel at various health levels. | National Institute for Communicable Diseases on behalf of the National Department of Health, South Africa | 9 (60) |
| Sense Followup [38] | |||
|
|
Sense Followup is a hybrid mobile app built for Android phones or tablets. It provides a simple interface that guides health workers through the processes of registering a contact and performing a follow-up. | eHealth Africa | 7 (47) |
| AVADARj [39,40] | |||
|
|
AVADAR is a mobile SMS text messaging–based software app designed to improve the quality and sensitivity of acute flaccid paralysis surveillance. Health care workers and key informants within hospital facilities and local communities uses AVADAR. | eHealth Africa | 6 (40) |
| EWORSk [41] | |||
|
|
EWORS uses advanced surveillance mechanisms to detect disease outbreaks earlier than possible. EWORS allows for the electronic collection and analysis of routine clinical and nonclinical data to identify the likelihood of occurrence of a disease outbreak in a given region. | InStrat Global Health solutions | 6 (40) |
| mAlert | |||
|
|
The mAlert system is used for reporting notifiable diseases. It integrates health surveillance data into a single platform for analysis. We identified this tool through the telephone survey, and it has no official website. | Mozambique National Institute of Health | 6 (40) |
| DHIMS2l [42] | |||
|
|
DHIMS2 is a customization of DHIS2 for Ghana. It is used for the management of health data at all administrative levels on Ghana. | Ghana Health Service | 5 (33) |
| SIS-MA (Health Information System for Monitoring and Evaluation) [43] | |||
|
|
The National Health Information System for Monitoring and Evaluation aims to support the collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health data that is used to plan public health services across Mozambique from all districts to the capital through the provinces according to the hierarchical organizational structure of the Ministry of Health. | Mozambican Open Architecture Standards and Information Systems and Jembi health systems | 5 (33) |
| mSERSm | |||
|
|
mSERS is an SMS text messaging–based tool used in Nigeria for aggregate reporting of health data. We identified this tool through the telephone survey, and it has no official website. | CDC | 5 (33) |
| ARGUS [44] | |||
|
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ARGUS was designed to make the best use of limited human and financial resources for public health surveillance. It is open-source, easy to configure, and multilingual. | World Health Organization | 5 (33) |
| RapidSMS [45] | |||
|
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RapidSMS is a free and open-source framework for building interactive SMS text messaging apps, which integrates tightly with Django to provide a rich reporting interface. | Innovation Team at the United Nations Children’s Fund and the RapidSMS Team | 4 (27) |
| mTrac [46] | |||
|
|
The mTrac system was designed for the real-time data collection, verification, accountability, and analysis of aggregate data and community engagement for the improvement of health care service delivery. mTrac is powered by RapidSMS. | Ministry of Health of Uganda | 4 (27) |
| FrontlineSMS [47] | |||
|
|
FrontlineSMS is a free and open-source software used by a variety of organizations to distribute and collect information via SMS text messaging. The software works without an internet connection and with a cell phone and computer. | Frontline | 3 (20) |
aDescription retrieved from the official website for tools having a website.
bNumber of attributes supported by tools based on available data.
cDHIS2: District Health Information Software 2.
dSORMAS: Surveillance Outbreak Response Management and Analysis System.
eeIDSR: electronic Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response.
fODK: Open Data Kit.
gEWARS: Early Warning, Alert, and Response System.
hREDCap: Research Electronic Data Capture.
iNMCSS: Notifiable Medical Conditions Surveillance System.
jAVADAR: Auto-Visual Acute flaccid paralysis Detection And Reporting.
kEWORS: Early Warning Outbreak Response System.
lDHIMS2: District Health Information Management System 2.
mmSERS: mobile Strengthening Epidemic Response System.