Table 2.
Non-clinical studies of nanoparticles in kidney diseases and kidney transplantation.
| Nanoparticles | Type | Role | Mechanism of Action | Type of Condition/ Pathology |
References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gold NPs with anti-collage-I antibody | Nanocarriers with molecules on the surface that interact with target cells |
Diagnostics | CT-imaging contrast, increased retention of gold NPs, good safety profile. |
Renal fibrosis | [113] |
| SPIO NPs conjugated to an anti-CR2 monoclonal antibody | SPIO/Nanocarriers with drugs |
Therapeutic and diagnostic |
Reduced inflammation -targeted drug delivery (e.g., dexamethasone) to glomerular endothelial cells, visualization of inflammation by MRI |
Glomerulonephritis | [114] |
| Iron oxide NPs conjugated to anti-VCAM-1 antibody |
SPIO/Nanocarriers with drugs |
Therapeutic and diagnostic |
MRI imaging of the kidney and targeted drug delivery to ischemic tissue (with increased VCAM-1 expression) |
AKI (ischemia-reperfusion injury) |
[114] |
| Mesoscale NPs | Nanocarriers with drugs | Therapeutic | Drug delivery with 5–7- fold higher efficacy in the kidney (tubular epithelium) than in other organs, safety profile. |
Unspecified (various kidney pathologies) |
[115] |
| Glutathione-coated luminescent gold NPs |
Renal-clearable luminescent metal NPs |
Diagnostic | Improved imaging-time window and kidney contrast compared to conventional dyes— superior assessment of renal function |
Unspecified (various kidney pathologies) |
[116] |
| PEGylated polylactic-coglycolic acid NPs with contrast/drug | Nanocarriers with molecules on the surface that interact with target cells |
Therapeutic and diagnostic |
Selective interaction with proximal tubule epithelial cells and renal clear cell carcinoma cells—new possibility of imaging a kidney tumour |
Renal clear cell carcinoma |
[117] |
| Zn/CuO NPs | Nanocarriers with cytotoxic agents |
Therapeutic | Excellent inhibition of renal cancer cells- cytotoxic effect of zinc ions without affecting healthy cells |
Renal tumours | [118] |
| Liposomes with immunosuppressive drugs |
Nanocarriers with immunosuppressive drugs |
Therapeutic | Targeted drug delivery with lower toxicity than immunosuppressive drugs alone | Graft rejection | [119] |
| Thrombin-targeted PFC-NP |
Nanocarriers with anticoagulants |
Therapeutic | Antithrombin activity- protection of the transplanted kidney after a period of ischaemia |
Transient arterial occlusion after KTx |
[120] |
| NP carrier of mycophenolate mofetil |
Nanocarriers with immunosuppressive drugs |
Therapeutic | Direct delivery of immunosuppressive drugs to the organ at the time of transplantation reduces intra- graft inflammation and alloimmune activation at a critical time |
Graft rejection | [121] |
| NP carrier of tacrolimus | Nanocarriers with immunosuppressive drugs |
Therapeutic | Inhibition of interleukin-2 production, suppression of T-cell activation with good safety profile |
Graft rejection | [122] |
| Rapamycin and ovalbumin peptide loaded porous silicon NPs |
Nanocarriers with immunosuppressive drugs |
Therapeutics | Up-regulation of regulatory T-cells |
Graft rejection | [123] |
| Immunocloaking membrane covering luminal surfaces of allograft vessels |
Nanomaterial | Therapeutics | Interrupted antigen presentation, disrupted diapedesis and inhibited early T-cell activation |
Graft rejection | [124] |
| Berberine NPs | Nanocarriers with antioxidative agents |
Therapeutic | Reduced expression of oxidative and mitochondrial stress pathway proteins |
AKI (ischemia-reperfusion injury) |
[125] |
| CNPs | Nanocarriers with antioxidative agents |
Therapeutic | Decreased caspase-3 activity, reduced level of reactive oxygen species |
AKI (ischemia-reperfusion injury) |
[126] |
| SPIO-labelled macrophages |
SPIO | Diagnostic | Increased signal in MRI—new possibility of monitoring of macrophages accumulation in kidney and potential kidney allograft rejection | Renal ischemia (reperfusion injury after KTx) | [127] |
Acute kidney injury (AKI); Anti-vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (anti-VCAM-1); Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CNPs); Computed tomography (CT); Kidney transplantation (KTx); Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); Nanoparticle (NP); Perfluorocarbon nanoparticle (PFC-NP); Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO).