Table 1.

Properties of natural-based bioinks.

Type of Bioinks	Sources	Properties	References
DECM	Majority composed of ECM	dECM-based bioinks have viscoelastic behavior and rheological properties of dECMs, including shear viscosity and shear modulus that can preserve cells during printing. Besides, it is a biodegradable and low cytotoxicity biomaterials.	[89,90]
Collagen	Bovine, porcine, murine, and marine	Low viscosity, high shear stress, low viscosity, and weak mechanical strength.	[58,63,91]
Gelatin	Bovine, porcine	Has controllable mechanical properties depending on the concentrations, temperature-dependent, reversible state from solid to gel, and its challenging to optimize the temperature and its viscosity	[52,92]
Alginate	Algae	has high shear-thinning properties and a faster polymerization time after printing. However, alginate do not have cell adhesion sites	[57,72,74]
Cellulose	Plant or bacterial ECM	Naturally occurring, biocompatible, biodegradable, and abundant biopolymer, high solubility in water and numerous carboxyl groups	[78,79]
Silk	Silkworms and spiders	low concentration and viscosity, slow biodegradation rate	[74,75,80]
Fibrinogen	Plasma protein	Biocompatibility, biodegradability, adjustable mechanical properties, nanofibrous structural characteristics, and low viscosity properties	[87,88]
Chitosan	Chitin	Biocompatibility, antibacterial properties, thermosensitive, and low mechanical strength	[93,94,95]