Table 3.

Clinical evidence on ω-3 PUFAs supplementation and the occurrence of FA or food allergens sensitization.

Reference	Subjects and Number	Supplementation	Time	Outcome	Results
Dunstan JA, et al. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 [75]	40 atopic pregnant women	Fish oil group: 4 (1-g) fish oil capsules per day comprising a total of 3.7 g of ω-3 PUFAs with 56.0% as DHA and 27.7% as EPA. Control group: 4 (1-g) capsules of olive oil per day (containing 66.6% n-9 oleic acid and <1% ω-3 PUFAs)	From 20 weeks gestation until delivery	Neonatal PUFAs levels and immunologic response to allergens at birth and clinical evaluation at 12 months of age as a secondary outcome	All neonatal cytokine responses to all allergens tended to be lower in the fish oil group; infants in the fish oil group were three times less likely to be sensitized to egg allergen at 1 year of age
Furuhjelm C, et al. Acta Paediatr. 2009 [68]	145 pregnant women, affected by allergy themselves or having a husband or previous child with allergies	Daily supplementation with either 1.6 g EPA and 1.1 g DHA or placebo	From the 25(th) gestational week to average 3–4 months of breastfeeding	The incidence of allergic disease in the first year of infants’ life	Reduction of the FA risk and IgE-associated eczema during the first year of life
Manley BJ, et al. Pediatrics. 2011 [76]	657 breastfed preterm infants (<33 weeks’ gestation)	Mothers taking either tuna oil (high-DHA diet, ∼1% total fatty acids) or soy oil (standard-DHA, ∼0.3% total fatty acids) capsules	From 2–4 days of postnatal age until 40 weeks postmenstrual age	Incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia and parental reporting of atopic conditions over the first 18 months of life	No effect on the incidence of parental reported FA
Furuhjelm C, et al. PediatrAllergyImmunol. 2011 [77]	145 pregnant women, affected by allergy themselves or having a husband or previous child with allergies	Daily supplementation with either 1.6 g EPA and 1.1 g DHA or placebo	From the 25(th) gestational week to average 3–4 months of breastfeeding	IgE-associated diseases last up to 2 years of age and assess the relationship between plasma proportions of ω-3 PUFAs and the frequency and severity of infant allergic disease	Decrease in cumulative incidence of IgE-associated disease; high proportions of DHA and EPA in maternal and infant plasma phospholipids were associated with less IgE-associated disease and a reduced severity of the allergic phenotype
Palmer DJ, et al. BMJ. 2012 [69]	706 pregnant women with a fetus at high risk of allergic disease	Fish oil capsules (providing 900 mg of ω-3 PUFAs daily) or matched vegetable oil capsules without ω-3 PUFAs (control group)	From 21 weeks gestation until delivery	IgE associated allergic disease (eczema or FA with sensitisation) at 1 year of age	No reduction in the overall incidence of IgE associated allergies; lower atopic eczema and egg sensitisation
D’Vaz N, et al. Pediatrics. 2012 [78]	420 infants at high atopic risk	Daily supplement of fish oil containing 280 mg DHA and 110 mg EPA or a control (olive oil)	From birth to age 6 months	Occurrence of allergic outcomes including sensitization, eczema, asthma, or FA	No effects in the prevention of childhood allergic disease
Best KP, et al. World Allergy Organ J. 2018 [79]	706 pregnant women with a fetus at high risk of allergic disease	Fish oil capsules (providing 900 mg of ω-3 PUFAs daily) or matched vegetable oil capsules without ω-3 PUFAs (control group)	From 21 weeks gestation until delivery	IgE associated allergic disease (eczema or FA with sensitisation) at 3 and 6 years of age	No significant effects on IgE-mediated allergic disease symptoms or sensitization