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. 2021 Nov 15;14(1):e14418. doi: 10.15252/emmm.202114418

Figure 3. Key molecular events during CR and fasting at the cellular and metabolic levels.

Figure 3

CR and fasting act on multiple levels, eliciting an increase in cellular and organismal multi‐stress resistance, which leads to systemic health benefits. AKT = protein kinase B/PKB, AMPK = AMP‐activated protein kinase, AMP/ATP = ratio of adenosine monophosphate to adenosine triphosphate, BCAA = branched‐chain amino acid, FFA = free fatty acid, FGF21 = fibroblast growth factor 21, FOXO = forkhead box O, IGF‐1 = insulin‐like growth factor, (V)LDL = (very) low‐density lipoprotein, mTOR = mechanistic target of rapamycin, NAD+/NADH = ratio of oxidized to reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NRF2 = nuclear factor erythroid 2‐related factor 2, PARP1 = Poly [ADP‐ribose] polymerase 1, PGC‐1α = peroxisome proliferation‐activated receptor gamma co‐activator 1α, TG = triglycerides.