Table 3.
Multivariate logistic regression of interaction between breast feeding and preceding birth interval—PDHS (2017–2018)
| Neonatal mortality | Infant mortality | Under-5 mortality | ||||
| Length of breast feeding (months) | ||||||
| Never breast fed | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Ever breast fed | 0.015*** | (0.01 to 0.04) | 0.039*** | (0.02 to 0.08) | 0.040*** | (0.02 to 0.08) |
| Preceding birth interval (months) | ||||||
| 36+ | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| First born | 1.956 | (0.31 to 12.30) | 1.595 | (0.30 to 8.35) | 1.569 | (0.30 to 8.29) |
| <18 | 4.748** | (1.54 to 14.64) | 4.848** | (1.58 to 14.85) | 3.863* | (1.21 to 12.28) |
| 18–23 | 1.028 | (0.24 to 4.39) | 0.995 | (0.26 to 3.75) | 0.798 | (0.22 to 2.91) |
| 24–35 | 0.947 | (0.28 to 3.22) | 0.811 | (0.26 to 2.51) | 0.742 | (0.24 to 2.25) |
| Never breast fed (36+) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Never breast fed (first born) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Never breast fed (<18) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Never breast fed (18–23) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Never breast fed (24–35) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Ever breast fed (36+) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Ever breast fed (first born) | 2.477 | (0.24 to 25.80) | 1.293 | (0.17 to 9.65) | 1.763 | (0.24 to 12.79) |
| Ever breast fed (<18) | 1.276 | (0.31 to 5.30) | 0.959 | (0.27 to 3.45) | 1.333 | (0.36 to 4.89) |
| Ever breast fed (18–23) | 1.498 | (0.20 to 11.12) | 1.291 | (0.26 to 6.49) | 2.165 | (0.46 to 10.16) |
| Ever breast fed (24–35) | 0.332 | (0.06 to 1.82) | 0.687 | (0.18 to 2.63) | 1.012 | (0.28 to 3.64) |
| Province | ||||||
| Punjab | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Sindh | 0.962 | (0.51 to 1.82) | 1.256 | (0.73 to 2.17) | 1.145 | (0.69 to 1.89) |
| KPK | 1.540 | (0.62 to 3.85) | 1.553 | (0.82 to 2.94) | 1.259 | (0.70 to 2.25) |
| Balochistan | 1.419 | (0.65 to 3.12) | 2.999** | (1.49 to 6.04) | 2.754*** | (1.52 to 5.01) |
| Islamabad | 0.744 | (0.24 to 2.34) | 1.493 | (0.73 to 3.06) | 1.383 | (0.74 to 2.60) |
| FATA | 0.810 | (0.30 to 2.20) | 0.690 | (0.30 to 1.61) | 0.581 | (0.26 to 1.30) |
| Residence | ||||||
| Rural | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Urban | 1.649 | (0.73 to 3.72) | 1.064 | (0.59 to 1.90) | 0.979 | (0.59 to 1.62) |
| Mother’s education | ||||||
| No education | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Primary | 1.133 | (0.54 to 2.37) | 1.173 | (0.66 to 2.09) | 0.968 | (0.55 to 1.70) |
| Secondary | 1.019 | (0.43 to 2.40) | 1.039 | (0.48 to 2.24) | 0.894 | (0.44 to 1.83) |
| Higher | 1.242 | (0.38 to 4.05) | 0.887 | (0.32 to 2.42) | 0.561 | (0.22 to 1.45) |
| Father’s education | ||||||
| No education | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Primary | 1.943 | (0.89 to 4.23) | 1.549 | (0.90 to 2.65) | 1.495 | (0.90 to 2.50) |
| Secondary | 0.701 | (0.32 to 1.55) | 0.639 | (0.34 to 1.21) | 0.649 | (0.36 to 1.18) |
| Higher | 0.379 | (0.11 to 1.33) | 0.405 | (0.16 to 1.03) | 0.653 | (0.27 to 1.56) |
| Child birth size | ||||||
| Average | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Small | 0.859 | (0.45 to 1.66) | 1.088 | (0.64 to 1.84) | 1.188 | (0.72 to 1.95) |
| Large | 0.338 | (0.11 to 1.05) | 1.109 | (0.48 to 2.57) | 0.913 | (0.40 to 2.10) |
| Sex of child | ||||||
| Female | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Male | 1.681 | (0.88 to 3.21) | 1.478 | (0.90 to 2.44) | 1.175 | (0.74 to 1.87) |
| Mother’s current age | ||||||
| 30–35 | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| 36–40 | 0.711 | (0.37 to 1.38) | 0.828 | (0.49 to 1.39) | 0.828 | (0.50 to 1.37) |
| >40 | 1.548 | (0.67 to 3.58) | 1.520 | (0.81 to 2.87) | 1.369 | (0.77 to 2.44) |
| Household wealth index | ||||||
| Poorest | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Poorer | 0.563 | (0.27 to 1.15) | 0.673 | (0.38 to 1.18) | 0.646 | (0.38 to 1.11) |
| Middle | 0.141** | (0.04 to 0.56) | 0.337* | (0.13 to 0.87) | 0.455 | (0.21 to 1.01) |
| Richer | 0.914 | (0.29 to 2.91) | 1.545 | (0.65 to 3.66) | 1.533 | (0.73 to 3.22) |
| Richest | 0.544 | (0.11 to 2.74) | 1.119 | (0.37 to 3.37) | 1.008 | (0.38 to 2.67) |
| Maternal employment status | ||||||
| Not working | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) | 1.000 | (1.00 to 1.00) |
| Working | 2.334** | (1.23 to 4.43) | 1.803* | (1.05 to 3.10) | 1.571 | (0.94 to 2.63) |
| N | 4230.000 | 4230.000 | 4230.000 | |||
| F | 8.510 | 9.311 | 8.028 | |||
| P value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |||
Exponentiated coefficients; 95% CIs in brackets.
*P<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
FATA, Federally Administered Tribal Area; KPK, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; PDHS, Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey.