Table 7.

Summarized effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rb₁ on different targets related to diabetes and complications, including diabetic retinopathy, diabetic encephalopathy, diabetic cardiomyopathy, obesity.

Model	Inducer/Method	Animal/Cell	Effects	Mechanisms	Reference
Diabetic retinopathy	Lipopolysaccharides	Mouse RAW264.7 cells, Human ARPE19 cells	↓IL-1, TNF-α, CCL2	↓miR-155	[94]
Diabetic cardiomyopathy	HFD and low-dose streptozotocin	C57BL/6 mice	↓Cardiac dysfunction, Abnormal cardiomyocytes calcium signaling	↓O-GlcNAcylation of calcium handling proteins, RyR2, OGT	[89]
Diabetic retinopathy	High Glucose-Induced	rat retinal capillary endothelial cells	↑Cell viability, mtDNA copy number; ↓ROS, NOx, PARP	↓NAD-PARP-SIRT	[93]
Diabetic retinopathy	Streptozotocin	Wistar rats	↓MDA; ↑GSH	↑Nrf2, GCLC, GCLM	[92]
T2D	HFD	C57BL/C mice	↑Insulin sensitivity	↓11β-HSD1	[83]
Glucose metabolism	Pyruvate, glucagon	C57BL/6 J mice, Primary hepatocytes	↓Gluconeogenesis	↓cAMP, CREB, MPC1	[85]
Glucose metabolism	Rb1	C2C12 myoblasts	↑Translocation of GLUT4	↑Leptin receptors, Phosphorylation of STAT3, PI3K and ERK2	[87]
T2D	High glucose-Induced	3T3-L1 adipocyte cells	↓IL-1β, IL-6, ER stress; ↑Insulin sensitivity	Dephosphorylation of IRE1a and PERK; ↓TXNIP/NLRP3, IRS-1/PI3K/Akt	[81]
Diabetic encephalopathy	Methylglyoxal	SH-SY5Y	↑Bcl-2/Bax ratio, SOD, CAT, GSH; ↓ROS, MDA, Cleaved Caspase-3 and Cleaved Caspase-9	↑PI3K/Akt	[96]
Glucose metabolism	Rb1	C2C12 myoblasts	↑Translocation of GLUT4	↑AdipoR1 and AdipoR2	[86]
Obesity	Fed a high-saturated fat diet	C57Bl/6 J male mice	↑BNDF, Leptin sensitivity	↑Leptin-JAK2-STAT3	[100]
Browning Effect	Rb1, Black ginseng	3T3-L1, primary white adipocytes	↑PPARγ, PGC-1α; ↓C/EBPα, SREBP-1c	↑AMPK	[98]
Obesity	Free fatty acids-induced oxidative stress and inflammation	3T3-L1	↑eNOS, NO, SOD; ↓ROS	↓NF-κB	[97]
T2D	Diabetic mice	Diabetic db/db mice	↓Liver fat accumulation, Circulating FFA levels, TNF-α; ↑Insulin sensitivity, Adiponectin	↑Perilipin expression	[82]