Table 4.

Rare sugars and their effects in human studies

Rare sugar	Health-related effects				Side effects
	Healthy individuals	Obese/overweight individuals	Individuals with type 2 diabetes/borderline type 2 diabetes
Allulose	Acute:   -reduced plasma glucose post-test meal58,59   -no effect on plasma glucose60   -increased FEE, decreased CEE58   Longer term:   -reduced BF41	Long term:   -Reduced BW3   -Reduced fat mass3	Acute:   -Reduced glucose iAUC40   Longer term:   -No effect on plasma glucose or insulin10   -Increased BF9	Diarrhea, abdominal pain, distension41
L-arabinose	Acute   -reduced insulin and glucose peak post-test meal11,13	Longer term   -reduced WC12   -reduced TC12   -reduced fasting plasma glucose12		Nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea12,13
D-tagatose	Acute   -appetite suppression61   -lower glucose iAUC14   Longer term   -no effect on BW16,17   -no effect on plasms glucose levels18		Acute   -reduced glucose iAUC15   Longer term   -reduced BW19,20	Nausea, diarrhea, flatulence, bloating61,18–20
Trehalose	Longer term   -no effect on BW25	Acute   -reduced rise in plasma glucose and insulin levels post–test meal21,22 (3)		Bloating, flatulence, diarrhea22,25
Isomaltulose (palatinose)	Acute   -reduced plasma glucose post–test meal26,28,32   Longer term   -reduced HOMA-IR35	Acute   -reduced plasma glucose post–test meal27   Longer term   -reduced BW33	Acute   -reduced plasma glucose post–test meal30   Longer term   -no effect on BW34   -reduced HOMA-IR34   -no effect on HbA1c levels36,37	Diarrhea, nausea, constipation34

Abbreviations: BF: body fat; BW: body weight; CEE: carbohydrate energy expenditure; FEE: fat energy expenditure; HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; HOMA-IR: Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance; iAUC: incremental area under the curve; TC: total cholesterol; WC: waist circumference.