Table 4.
Comparison of socio-demographic and clinical factors between rural and urban subgroups within the study cohort (n = 4056)
| Characteristic | Rural (n = 2626) | Urban (n = 1350) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years | 50.5 ± 11.6 | 49.8 ± 12.1 | 0.096 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 23.8 (21.0–26.8) | 25.3 (23.0–28.4) | <0.001 |
| Waist/hip ratio | 1.05 (1.02–1.10) | 1.04 (1.00–1.08) | <0.001 |
| Education | |||
| Illiterate | 872 (33.21) | 197 (14.6) | <0.001 |
| Some schooling | 1262 (48.1) | 624 (46.2) | |
| Graduate or above | 492 (18.7) | 529 (39.2) | |
| Occupational exposurea | 1434 (54.6) | 560 (41.5) | <0.001 |
| Sand/dust | 644 (24.5) | 195 (14.4) | 0.000 |
| Cement | 64 (2.4) | 22 (1.6) | 0.097 |
| Saw dust | 123 (4.7) | 22 (1.6) | 0.000 |
| Working barefoot in field | 238 (9.1) | 21 (1.6) | 0.000 |
| Pesticide spray | 213 (8.1) | 12 (0.9) | 0.000 |
| Others | 586 (40.9) | 330 (58.9) | |
| Current tobacco user | 536 (20.6) | 203 (15.1) | <0.001 |
| Current alcohol users | 193 (7.4) | 104 (7.8) | 0.691 |
| Physically active | 1047 (40.2) | 656 (48.9) | <0.001 |
| Non-vegetarian diet | 1765 (68.2) | 805 (59.9) | <0.001 |
| Access to piped water supply | 1229 (46.8) | 710 (52.6) | <0.001 |
| Annual household income (USD) | 1680 (840–3360) | 3024 (1512–6720) | <0.001 |
| Annual household medical expenditure (USD) | 268.8 (84–521) | 336 (84–672) | <0.001 |
| Has medical insurance | 721 (27.8) | 531 (39.8) | <0.001 |
| Out-of-pocket medical expenses | 2254 (85.8) | 1049 (77.7) | <0.001 |
| Clinical characteristic | |||
| Hypertension | 2207 (85.2) | 1226 (91.2) | <0.001 |
| Diabetes | 933 (36.3) | 530 (40.0) | 0.026 |
| CVD | 592 (22.7) | 257 (19.2) | 0.010 |
| Renal stone disease | 283 (10.8) | 183 (13.6) | 0.010 |
| Recurrent UTI | 293 (11.2) | 144 (10.7) | 0.647 |
| Alternative drug use | 561 (21.4) | 357 (26.4) | <0.001 |
| Ayurvedic | 222 (39.6) | 141 (39.5) | |
| Homoeopathic | 135 (24.1) | 72 (20.2) | |
| Siddha | 27 (4.8) | 24 (6.7) | |
| Unani | 10 (1.8) | 3 (0.8) | |
| Others | 167 (29.8) | 117 (32.8) | |
| NSAID use | 395 (15.2) | 217 (16.2) | 0.397 |
| History of AKI | 167 (6.4) | 98 (7.3) | 0.283 |
| Required dialysis for AKI | 158 (6.1) | 70 (5.2) | 0.284 |
| Underwent kidney biopsy | 417 (16.0) | 264 (19.7) | 0.004 |
Data are presented as mean ± SD, median (25–75th percentile) or n (%).
a
Occupational exposure—has multiple responses.