Table 4.
The outcomes stratified according to Ramadan time passed in pregnancy (N = 238)
| No exposure to Ramadan (n = 48) |
1st trimester only exposure to Ramadan (n = 59) |
2nd trimester only exposure to Ramadan (n = 75) |
3rd trimester only exposure to Ramadan (n = 56) |
P value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal demographics | ||||||
| Ethnicity (%): | 1. Arab | 39.2 | 37.5 | 45.6 | 48.1 | 0.6 |
| 2.Indian | 49 | 44.6 | 35.4 | 38.9 | ||
| 3.Asian | 9.8 | 7.1 | 10.1 | 9.3 | ||
| 4.Other | 2 | 10.7 | 8.9 | 3.7 | ||
| Maternal age (years) | 30.8 ± 4.5 | 31.4 ± 5.3 | 32.2 ± 4.8 | 30.2 ± 5.9 | 0.2 | |
| Weight gain during pregnancy (kg) | 12.2 ± 6.3 | 8.9 ± 7.7 | 12.0 ± 5.8 | 12.5 ± 5.2 | 0.1 | |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 25.2 ± 4.3 | 26.6 ± 6.2 | 27.5 ± 5.0 | 26.0 ± 5.3 | 0.1 | |
| Family history of DM (%) | 67.3 | 75.9 | 55.1 | 51.9 |
0.03 Ztrend p = 0.02 |
|
| Gestation age at diagnosis of GDM (weeks) | 24.6 ± 7.9 | 23.9 ± 6.4 | 23.9 ± 6.7 | 27.2 ± 6.2 |
0.04 Ttrend p = 0.07 |
|
| GDM diagnosis and intervention | ||||||
| OGTT results: | 0 min | 4.8 ± 0.6 | 5.2 ± 1.3 | 4.9 ± 0.8 | 5.0 ± 0.8 | 0.2 |
| 60 min | 9.9 ± 1.5 | 10.7 ± 2.1 | 9.9 ± 1.6 | 10.5 ± 1.7 | 0.046 | |
| 120 min | 8.4 ± 1.6 | 9.0 ± 2.1 | 8.6 ± 1.4 | 8.6 ± 1.7 | 0.3 | |
| AUC | 993 ± 118 | 1067 ± 205 | 994 ± 130 | 1018 ± 166 | 0.05 | |
| Insulin treatment (%) | 60.4 | 55.9 | 60 | 53.6 |
0.9 Ztrend p = 0.6 |
|
| Gestation insulin commenced (weeks) | 28.0 ± 6.7 | 27.6 ± 5.4 | 28.2 ± 7.7 | 29.0 ± 5.7 | 0.9 | |
| Maximum insulin dose (units) | 34 [18–54] | 32 [22–60] | 34 [20–63] | 47 [14–78] | 0.8 | |
| Pregnancy outcomes (short-term) | ||||||
| Gestation at confinement (weeks) | 38.1 ± 2.9 | 38.5 ± 1.5 | 38.7 ± 1.5 | 38.8 ± 1.4 | 0.06 | |
| Pre-term delivery (< 37 weeks) (%) | 8.3 | 10.5 | 8.2 | 7.1 |
0.9 Ztrend p = 0.7 |
|
| Caesarean section (%) | 29.8 | 38.6 | 33.8 | 33.9 |
0.8 Ztrend p = 0.9 |
|
| Gestational HTN (%) | 14.6 | 15.3 | 17.3 | 14.3 |
1.0 Ztrend p = 1.0 |
|
| Baby weight (grams) | 3140 ± 619 | 3163 ± 603 | 3272 ± 523 | 3351 ± 497 |
0.2 Ttrend p = 0.03 |
|
| Macrosomia (%) | 4.3 | 7.0 | 9.5 | 5.4 | Ztrend p = 0.7 | |
| LGA (%) | 6.4 | 7.0 | 6.9 | 10.7 |
p = 0.8 Ztrend p = 0.4 |
|
| SGA (%) | 12.8 | 7.0 | 4.2 | 7.1 |
p = 0.4 Ztrend p = 0.3 |
|
| Deceased birth/stillbirth (%) | 2.1 | 0 | 0 | 1.8 | N/A | |
| Deceased post-partum/neonatal death (%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.9 | N/A | |
| Neonatal hypoglycaemia (%) | 22.7 | 10.9 | 8.3 | 8.9 |
p = 0.09 Ztrend p = 0.048 |
|
| Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia (%) | 6.8 | 16.4 | 23.3 | 25.0 |
p = 0.08 Ztrend p = 0.02 |
|
| Maternal post-partum glycaemic status | ||||||
| Post-delivery GTT (%) | No diabetes | 90.9 | 69.2 | 76.9 | 72 | N/A |
| IGT | 4.5 | 23.1 | 23.1 | 28 | ||
| Diabetes | 4.5 | 7.7 | 0 | 0 | ||
*Data are %; mean ± SD; or median [IQR]