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Journal of Food Science and Technology logoLink to Journal of Food Science and Technology
. 2021 Jan 27;59(1):1–11. doi: 10.1007/s13197-021-04987-9

Quality improvement of bamboo shoots by removal of antinutrients using different processing techniques: A review

Nirmala Chongtham 1,✉, Madho Singh Bisht 2, Thounaojam Premlata 1, Harjit Kaur Bajwa 1, Vivek Sharma 1, Oinam Santosh 1
PMCID: PMC8758816  PMID: 35068547

Abstract

Bamboo shoot is highly nutritious and contains a plethora of health-promoting bioactive compounds. It is a valuable source of food for Asiatic countries but it contains some antinutrients such as cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, tannins, oxalates and phytates which deter its consumption due to safety issues. The most predominant antinutrient in bamboo shoot is cyanogenic glycosides. It causes increase in blood glucose and lactic acid levels and a decrease in the ATP/ADP ratio indicating the shift from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism. The anti-nutrients such as phytate can cause vitamins and minerals deficiencies. Though anti-nutrients may have deleterious effect when present in high concentration, they may also exert beneficial health effects at low concentrations. In order to eliminate or reduce the level of anti-nutrients to barest minimum, appropriate processing techniques such as soaking, boiling, drying and fermentation can be used. The cyanogen content in bamboo shoots range from 36.32 to more than 1000 mg/kg. Impact of different processing techniques revealed that, fermentation is the best method for reducing the antinutrient content and improving the quality of bamboo shoots as well as increasing the shelf life of the shoots.

Keywords: Bamboo shoots, Antinutrients, Cyanogenic glucosides, Processing

Introduction

Bamboo shoots with its rich content of nutrients, vitamins, minerals, phenols, phytosterols and dietary fibres and low content of fat and calories are considered as a health food (Chongtham et al. 2011; Chongtham and Bisht 2021). Its consumption is concentrated mainly in Asian countries with the shoots being used for making appetizing soups, hot curries, salads, delicious snacks and other stewed and fried dishes. The shoots are not only consumed as fresh vegetables but also processed and preserved in many forms such as dried, fermented, salted, pickled, water soaked, and canned. The annual consumption of bamboo shoot is more than 2 million tons and is widespread not only is Asia but also in Europe, North America, Australia, Africa and other countries due to the popularity of Chinese restaurants worldwide. Though highly nutritious and endowed with several health benefits, bamboo shoots contain some antinutrients which deter its consumptions due to safety issues (Rawat et al. 2015). Antinutrients are mainly defence-related secondary metabolites produced by plants with specific biological functions as governed by the structure and functional nature of these compounds which range from simple carbohydrates to complex proteins. Though present in high concentration in grains, beans, legumes and nuts, they are also found in leaves, roots and fruits of certain plants. Examples of major antinutrients include saponins, tannins, oxalates, phytates, lectins, cyanogenic glucosides, trypsin inhibitors, alpha-amylase inhibitors, protease inhibitors and goitrogens. Though essential components of natural plant defence mechanisms against herbivore and pest attacks, antinutrients tend to affect the bioavailability and metabolisms of various essential nutrient components if consumed in higher quantities and some antinutrient compounds maybe deleterious to health. However, anti-nutrients might not always be harmful as they may have beneficial health effects at low concentrations. When used at low levels, phytate, lectins, tannins, amylase inhibitors and saponins have also been shown to reduce the blood glucose and insulin responses to plasma cholesterol and triglycerides and can reduce cancer risks (Gemede and Ratta 2014). Anti-nutrients can have significant adverse effects on the nutritional value of foods and reducing their concentration in foods is a major goal in human nutrition (Samtiya et al. 2020). Different traditional and technological processing methods have been used for reducing these anti-nutritional components in foods.

Along with the identification and characterization of various nutritional facets of plants, it is necessary to screen the presence of antinutrients so that the biosafety aspects of such food material can be validated appropriately and strategies for their removal can be developed. The antinutrients can be detoxified by several processing methods such as soaking, germination, boiling, autoclaving, fermentation, gamma radiation, genetic manipulation and other processing methods (Popova and Mihaylova 2019). For centuries, people in the region of East and South-East Asia have been developing traditional processing methods such as soaking, boiling and fermentation to remove the antinutrients from the shoots and make them palatable. Processing of bamboo shoots is also done for increasing the shelf life of highly perishable young juvenile shoots, proper handling and long-distance transportation. In addition, during processing, the shoots become softer, more palatable and the colour changes varying from white to greyish after soaking and fermentation and yellow after boiling. Although most of these secondary metabolites elicit harmful biological responses, some of them are widely applied in nutrition and as pharmacologically active agents (Soetan 2008). Antinutrients found in bamboo shoots include cyanogenic glucosides, saponins, glucosinolates, tannins, oxalates and phytates. Detailed studies about these antinutrients and techniques for their removal have not been worked out extensively limiting the consumption of this nutritious vegetable. This review paper discusses the antinutrients in bamboo shoots and the processing techniques that can be utilized to remove these compounds from the shoots to make them palatable and safe for consumption.

Anti-nutrients in bamboo shoots

Cyanogenic glycosides

The most predominant antinutrient in the shoots is cyanogenic glycosides which is responsible for the acrid taste and peculiar smell in the shoots due to which it is less preferred by consumers. Cyanogenic glycosides may be defined chemically as glycosides of α-hydroxynitriles that belong to a group of amino acid-derived secondary metabolites (Vetter 2000). They are derived from the five protein amino acids viz. valine, isoleucine, leucine, phenyalanine and tyrosine and from the nonproteinogenic amino acid cyclopentenyl glycine and constitute a small class with around 50 different known structures (Gemede and Ratta 2014). There are at least 2650 plant species that produce cyanogenic glycosides of which a number of species are used as food in many parts of the world (Haque and Bradbury 2002). Plant synthesizes cyanogenic glycosides as a defense mechanism against attack of herbivores, insects and pathogens. Cyanogenic glycosides also improve plant plasticity i.e., establishment, robustness and viability with response to environmental challenges.

Approximately 25 cyanogenic glycosides are known and their content has been reported in various parts of food plants (Table 1). The major ones are linamarin in roots and leaves of cassava (Manihot esculenta), amygdalin and prunasin in bitter almond (Prunus dulcis), seeds of apple (Malus spp.), kernels of peach (Prunus persica) and apricot (Prunus armeniaca), dhurrin in leaves of sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), lotaustralin in tubers of cassava (Manihot esculenta) and lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) and triglochinin in leaves of giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos). The cyanogenic glycoside present in bamboo shoot is taxiphyllin (Jones 1998). Structures of some commonly found cyanogenic glycosides and their contents in food plants are presented in Fig. 1 and Table 1.

Table 1.

Major cyanogenic glycosides and their contents in some commonly consumed food plants

Plants Plant part Major cyanogenic glycosides Content
(mg/kg)		 References
Almonds (Prunus dulcis) Seed Amygdalin 25–1062 Chaouali et al. (2013)
Apple (Malus spp.) Seed Amygdalin 690–790 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) Kernel Amygdalin 785–813 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Peach (Prunus persica) Kernel Amygdalin 710–720 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) Leaf Dhurrin 750–790 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Root Linamarin, Lotaustralin 25–27 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Leaf Linamarin, Lotaustralin 770–1040 Nahrstedt (1993)
Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) Seed Linamarin, Lotaustralin 2100–3120 Nartey (1980)
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) Seedmeal Linamarin, Linustatin, Neolinustatin 360–390 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
Giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos) Stem, Leaf Triglochinin 29–32 Haque and Bradbury (2002)
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Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Structures of some commonly found glycosides in food plant

Cyanogenic glycosides are biosynthesized from different L-amino acids, which are hydroxylated and then glycosylated (Vetter 2000). The L-amino acid such as valine is converted into linamarin, isoleucine into lotaustralin, tyrosine into dhurrin and taxiphyllin and phenylalanine into prunasin. Normally in plants, the cyanogenic glycosides and the degrading enzyme, β-glycosidase are spatially separated in different compartments of cells and are only brought together when the cell wall gets disrupted during herbivore attack (Francisco and Pinotti 2000). When the plant tissue is disrupted by herbivore attack or the cell integrity is destroyed by physical processes, the enzyme β-glycosidase degrades the cyanogenic glycosides into a sugar and a cyanohydrin that spontaneously decomposes to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and an aldehyde or a ketone by the enzyme hydroxynitrilelyase.

Shoots of some bamboo species are known to contain a significantly high amount of cyanogenic glycosides which are responsible for the bitterness in the shoots and limits its consumption. The cyanogenic glycoside present in bamboo shoots is taxiphyllin, a p-hydroxylated mandelonitrile tiglochinin which is highly unstable and thermolabile. Upon hydrolysis, taxiphyllin is degraded into glucose and hydroxybenzaldehyde cyanohydrin which is further degraded into hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and hydroxybenzaldehyde (FSANZ 2004). The cyanogenic glycoside content in bamboo shoots varies from species to species and in different parts of the shoot. Several methods such as picrate and acid hydrolysis method, chemiluminescence, spectrophotometry, colorimetric method, sequential injection method, atomic-absorption spectrophotometry and ion chromatography–pulsed amperometric detection have been applied to measure cyanide content (Ding and Wang 2018).

Schwarzmaier (1977) evaluated the cyanogen content in young shoots of D. giganteus and D. hamiltonii which ranged from 900–1000 mg/kg. A very high amount of cyanogenic glycosides ranging from 3780–10,580 ppm in shoots of four bamboo species (B. edulis, B. oldhami, D. giganteus and D. latiflorus) was reported by Chang and Hwang (1990). Ferreira et al. (1995) reported a cyanogen content of 894 ppm in fresh shoots of D. giganteus while the shoots of Bambusa arundinacea were found to contain 1010 and 1060 ppm of HCN by acid hydrolysis and picrate method respectively (Haque and Bradbury 2002).

The cyanogenic glycoside content in fresh shoots of some Indian bamboo species belonging to different genera such as Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Melocanna, Phyllostachys and Thyrsostachys (Table 2) were determined by the method of Haque and Bradbury (2002) using linamarin as standard (Rawat et al. 2015; Devi 2019). Table 2 shows the range of total cyanogenic glycosides content in fresh shoots of twenty five edible bamboo species that ranged from 36.32 to 1717.85 mg/kg f.w. Shoots of P. mannii, C. callosa, C. capitatum, M. baccifera and B. jaintiana contained cyanogenic glycoside less than 500 mg/kg (i.e. 36.32–434.02 mg/kg f.w.). Species viz., B. balcooa, B. manipureana, B. tulda, B. vulgaris, D. asper, D. calostachys, D. giganteus, D. hookeri, D. membranaceus and D. longispathus contain cynogens ranging from 514.80–988.17 mg/kg f.w. Cyanogenic content of more than 1000 mg/kg was found in species such as B. bambos, B. cacharensis, B. mizorameana, B. nutans, D. hamiltonii, D. latiflorus, D. manipureanus, D. sikkimensis, D. strictus and T. oliveri (Table 2).

Table 2.

Cyanogenic glycoside content in fresh shoots of 25 edible bamboo species (in mg/kg fresh weight) (

Adapted from Rawat et al. 2015; Devi 2019)

Sl Species Cyanogenic glycosides
1 B. balcooa 942.48 ± 7.26
2 B. bambos 1366.50 ± 66.72
3 B. cacharensis 1155.26 ± 8.13
4 B. jaintiana 434.02 ± 8.14
5 B. manipureana 642.05 ± 4.57
6 B. mizorameana 1309.97 ± 5.68
7 B. nutans 1224.43 ± 2.38
8 B. tulda 867.24 ± 2.86
9 B. vulgaris 523.25 ± 9.68
10 Cephalostachyum capitatum 138.60 ± 15.42
11 Chimonobambusa callosa 55.97 ± 0.91
12 Dendrocalamus asper 766.66 ± 8.12
13 D. calostachys 636.77 ± 6.10
14 D. giganteus 988.17 ± 8.21
15 D. hamiltonii 1019.30 ± 7.80
16 D. hookeri 767.45 ± 7.13
17 D. latiflorus 1027.22 ± 6.48
18 D. longispathus 952.78 ± 4.12
19 D. manipureanus 1347.98 ± 5.71
20 D. membranaceus 514.80 ± 3.15
21 D. sikkimensis 1335.31 ± 8.82
22 D. strictus 1717.85 ± 6.10
23 Melocanna baccifera 315.22 ± 8.82
24 Phyllostachys mannii 36.32 ± 2.18
25 Thyrsostachys oliveri 1097.71 ± 3.15
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All the values presented in the table are means of three replicates (n = 3) ± standard deviation

The content of cyanogens also varies in different parts of the shoots (i.e. tip, middle and base). A reduction in cyanide content from 0.16% at the tip to 0.01% at the base was reported by Haque and Bradbury (2002). Sarangthem et al. (2010) reported the cyanogen content in young shoots of six edible bamboo species of Manipur where highest content was found at the tip portion (140–2420 mg/kg) and lowest at the base (30–620 mg/kg). Waikhom et al. (2013) reported 300–2604 ppm cyanogens in tip portion, 210–2243 ppm in middle portion and 199–920 ppm in basal portion in shoots of fifteen edible bamboo species and revealed that the content was found highest in tip portion. Cyanogen content in shoots also varies with age and different stages of growth. The variation of toxic content due to ageing in fresh shoots of four edible bamboos species (B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. tulda, and D. giganteus) at three different stages of growth was reported by Haorongbam et al. (2009).

Processing methods for reducing cyanogen content

Cyanogen content in bamboo shoots is reduced substantially following harvesting. Taxiphyllin, the cyanogenic glycoside present in bamboo shoots is an unusually least stable among other antinutrient compounds and also thermolabile; hence it can be decomposed readily by the action of heat (Davies 1991). Different traditional methods such as chopping of tender shoots into small pieces, slicing, soaking, boiling, blanching, partial sun drying, fermentation, etc. also significantly reduce the cyanide content in the shoots. Cyanogenic glycoside content in shoots of ten edible bamboo species were analysed after applying different processing techniques like soaking, boiling, brine treatment and fermentation (Rawat et al 2015; Devi 2019; Table 3).

Table 3.

Effect of different processing techniques on cyanogenic glycoside content (mg/kg fresh weight) in shoots of ten edible bamboo species (Adapted from Rawat et al. 2015; Devi 2019)

Species Fresh shoots 12-h water soaking 20 min boiling 5% brine treatment Fermentation
B. balcooa 942.48 ± 7.26 336.60 ± 4.56 137.81 ± 5.23 37.35 ± 2.24 193.11 ± 4.12
B. nutans 1224.43 ± 2.38 358.78 ± 5.60 232.06 ± 3.36 42.77 ± 4.48 242.88 ± 7.49
B. tulda 867.24 ± 2.86 293.04 ± 8.96 147.31 ± 4.48 29.30 ± 5.60 110.35 ± 5.56
D. giganteus 988.17 ± 8.21 359.58 ± 2.46 137.80 ± 5.23 39.54 ± 1.12 154.22 ± 3.23
D. hamiltonii 1019.30 ± 7.80 327.86 ± 6.72 174.34 ± 1.12 41.18 ± 3.20 170.54 ± 7.49
D. hookeri 767.45 ± 7.13 208.30 ± 2.32 139.39 ± 8.44 38.81 ± 5.60 196.94 ± 6.60
D. latiflorus 1027.22 ± 6.48 339.77 ± 7.84 178.20 ± 1.12 40.39 ± 3.36 197.47 ± 3.99
D. longispathus 952.78 ± 4.12 310.46 ± 6.72 197.21 ± 5.60 36.43 ± 4.48 237.07 ± 5.09
D. manipureanus 1347.98 ± 5.71 390.46 ± 5.60 192.46 ± 5.60 49.10 ± 8.96 246.05 ± 3.99
D. sikkimensis 1335.31 ± 8.82 411.84 ± 6.72 239.18 ± 6.72 99.79 ± 6.72 285.65 ± 3.30
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All the values presented in the table are means of three replicates (n = 3) ± standard deviation

Soaking

Soaking is the simplest traditional practice used for removal of antinutrients from bamboo shoots. Overnight soaking is an effective precooking method applied for removal of acrid taste and smell from the shoots. Experimental analysis on soaked shoots of 10 edible bamboo species showed that overnight (12 h) soaking of shoots in plain water reduced 63.61–72.86% cyanogens from fresh shoots (Table 3). The decrease in cyanogens depends on some factors like temperature, time and soaking medium in which the material is soaked. Bhargava et al. (1996) reported the removal of cyanogenic glycosides from bamboo shoots by pre-soaking of shoots in 2% salt solution with subsequent changing of water. Reduction in cyanogen content upto 86.59% and 66% after soaking treatment was also reported by Devi (2019).

Boiling

Boiling is the most common method used for removal of antinutrients from the vegetables and fruits. During boiling, the cell walls rupture which allows leakage of cell contents along with antinutrients and toxic substances (Ogbadoyi et al. 2006). Ferreira et al. (1995) reported that the cyanogen content in fresh shoots of D. giganteus (894 ppm) was reduced by about 70% when the shoots were boiled for 20 min and about 97% when boiled for longer duration. Boiling of shoots with different concentrations of salt has also been reported to reduce cyanogens. Rana et al. (2012) reported that the maximum reduction of cyanogens (98.3%) in D. strictus was obtained from the shoots of 1.25 cm thickness, boiled for 23 min with a concentration of 2.4% NaCl in a volume of 216 ml water. Pandey and Ojha (2014) reported that boiling in 5% NaCl for 15 min was found to be the best method for B. bamboos, (10 min in 1% NaCl for B. tulda, 15 min in 1% NaCl for D. strictus and 10 min in 5% NaCl for D. asper). Significant reduction of cyanogen content after boiling was also reported by Thounaojam et al. (2017). Cadena et al. (2018) also reported that the content of cyanogens was decreased by 73% after 15 min, 93.64% after 30 min and 98.7% after 60 min of boiling. It is observed that shoots boiled for 20 min at 100ºC could reduce the cyanogens content upto 79.30–86.06% as compared to fresh shoots where the maximum reduction was found in D. giganteus shoots (Table 3). In brine stored shoots, cyanogen content ranged from 29.30 to 99.79 mg/kg fresh weight resulting into a great reduction of 92.53–96.62% cyanogens from fresh shoots (Table 3). Similarly, 96% reduction of cyanogen content in brine storage shoots of D. latiflorus was also reported by Thounaojam et al. (2017)

Fermentation

Fermentation is one of the oldest, popular and most economical form of food preservation technologies in the world which is still being used in modern food industry (Tamang et al. 2020). Reduction of cyanogen content in fresh shoots to a non-significant toxic level in fermented shoots has been reported (Sarangthem and Singh 2013; Thounaojam et al. 2017). Darmayanti et al. (2014) also reported that the fermentation of pickle prepared from the shoots of Gigantochloa nigrociliata reduced the cyanogen content from 37.80 ppm on day 0 to 20.52 ppm on 13th day of fermentation process. Rawat et al. (2015) and Thounaojam et al. (2017) studied the effect of fermentation on cyanogenic glycoside content in ten bamboo species (Table 3). The cyanogen content in fermented shoots ranged between 110.35–285.65 mg/kg resulting into a reduction of 74.34–87.28% cyanogens compared to the fresh shoots. This drop in cyanogen content in shoots may be due to volatile nature of taxiphyllin and loss of HCN during peeling, slicing, washing and draining of exudates in the fermentation process. During fermentation, lactic acid bacteria play an important role in cyanogen reduction by lowering the pH that makes the shoots safe for consumption (Darmayanti et al. 2014).

Drying

Drying is another processing method for removal of cyanogenic glycosides in food plants as it removes water from the product by evaporation and protects the product from quality decay and microorganisms. Drying methods such as oven, sun, freeze and superheated steam can be employed for the reduction of cyanogen. Wongsakpairod (2000) reported that superheated steam drying at 120–160 °C removes HCN from bamboo shoot as taxiphyllin decomposes at around 116ºC. Very high reduction of cyanogen content (95%) can be achieved by oven drying at 60ºC even for a brief period (Lambri and Fumi 2014). Removal of 81% cyanogenic glycoside content after oven drying at 50 °C within 24 h has also been reported by Iwuoha et al. (1997). Therefore, drying is also one of the appropriate methods for the removal of cyanogens in shoots of different bamboo species.

Glucosinolate

Glucosinolates are sulphur containing compounds responsible for the bitter tastes of several vegetables especially cruciferous vegetables including Brassica napus, Brassica compestris, Brassica juncea and more. Although glucosinolates have been reported to have adverse health effects, it helps to increase the liver’s ability to neutralize potentially toxic substances and also prevent breast and ovarian cancer (Thompson 1993). Glucosinolate hydrolyzation products have great industrial interest due to their positive effects on human health (Alexandre et al. 2020). Freshly harvested bamboo shoots also contain a significant amount of glucosinolates. Total glucosinolate content in the fresh shoots of four bamboo species viz. Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. latiflorus and D. membranaceous was determined and it was found that glucosinolates content did not show much variation in all the species and ranged between 26.45 to 29.99 mg/100 g f.w. (Sharma 2018). Highest glucosinolate content among all species was seen in the B. tulda shoots while the least was found in the shoots of D. latiflorus (Table 4).

Table 4.

Effect of boiling, soaking, fermentation and drying (sun drying, oven drying and freeze drying) on the glucosinolate, oxalate, saponin, phytate and tannin content (mg/100 g) in shoots of four bamboo species. (

Adapted from Sharma 2018)

Antinutrients Species Fresh Boiled Soaked Fermented Sun dried Oven dried Freeze dried
Glucosinolate B. tulda 29.99 ± 0.62 15.68 ± 0.95 7.60 ± 0.28 8.69 ± 0.38 193.70 ± 0.85 266.60 ± 0.98 306.70 ± 0.67
D. giganteus 27.02 ± 0.67 12.48 ± 0.62 5.30 ± 0.77 7.42 ± 0.26 158.60 ± 0.33 231.10 ± 0.54 274.50 ± 0.42
D. latiflorus 26.45 ± 0.91 10.79 ± 0.59 4.98 ± 0.68 6.92 ± 0.38 176.00 ± 0.93 263.30 ± 0.67 263.40 ± 0.03
D. membranaceous 27.52 ± 0.50 11.87 ± 0.21 6.63 ± 0.52 6.99 ± 0.25 189.10 ± 0.76 274.10 ± 0.44 288.20 ± 0.70
Oxalate B. tulda 283.71 ± 0.49 222.15 ± 0.57 232.44 ± 1.05 124.58 ± 0.48 477.86 ± 0.80 431.61 ± 0.23 343.27 ± 0.16
D. giganteus 286.58 ± 0.93 225.32 ± 1.11 234.47 ± 0.66 144.32 ± 0.50 480.29 ± 0.79 434.06 ± 0.18 346.49 ± 0.81
D. latiflorus 263.93 ± 1.08 201.95 ± 0.70 211.16 ± 0.35 150.51 ± 0.30 397.49 ± 0.73 351.47 ± 0.17 280.16 ± 0.36
D. membranaceous 278.28 ± 0.75 216.67 ± 0.60 226.61 ± 0.86 175.43 ± 0.27 411.74 ± 0.30 366.47 ± 0.52 295.49 ± 0.90
Saponin B. tulda 229.58 ± 0.88 146.57 ± 0.62 158.48 ± 0.58 32.29 ± 0.10 240.27 ± 0.36 242.87 ± 0.74 239.25 ± 0.29
D. giganteus 232.96 ± 0.55 150.13 ± 0.52 162.14 ± 0.46 32.22 ± 0.22 244.07 ± 0.38 245.89 ± 0.23 243.74 ± 0.95
D. latiflorus 241.96 ± 0.50 186.50 ± 0.52 189.68 ± 0.43 27.41 ± 0.52 253.73 ± 0.70 255.39 ± 0.70 252.38 ± 0.49
D. membranaceous 246.22 ± 0.27 190.78 ± 0.20 194.52 ± 0.5 30.04 ± 0.24 258.29 ± 0.61 260.48 ± 0.91 256.95 ± 0.48
Phytate B. tulda 86.25 ± 0.61 30.24 ± 1.10 30.67 ± 0.42 0 45.89 ± 0.29 45.83 ± 0.86 44.9 ± 0.69
D. giganteus 90.33 ± 0.51 33.96 ± 0.62 34.59 ± 0.21 0 50.35 ± 0.66 49.79 ± 0.70 49.59 ± 0.92
D. latiflorus 94.60 ± 0.80 38.98 ± 0.66 42.27 ± 0.49 3.58 ± 0.43 56.3 ± 0.57 58.23 ± 0.27 54.14 ± 0.20
D. membranaceous 96.78 ± 0.69 41.42 ± 0.87 44.63 ± 0.63 4.65 ± 0.41 58.62 ± 0.63 60.45 ± 0.31 57.04 ± 0.89
Tannin B. tulda 49.03 ± 0.60 26.60 ± 0.80 26.11 ± 0.87 2.72 ± 0.30 29.05 ± 0.21 28.61 ± 0.48 27.37 ± 0.17
D. giganteus 51.14 ± 0.38 29.16 ± 0.87 28.34 ± 0.69 6.25 ± 0.38 31.89 ± 0.54 30.79 ± 0.38 30.33 ± 0.68
D. latiflorus 40.09 ± 0.32 21.52 ± 1.01 20.15 ± 0.62 0.99 ± 0.07 24.37 ± 0.68 25.10 ± 0.60 22.03 ± 0.60
D. membranaceous 42.68 ± 0.94 22.21 ± 0.07 21.68 ± 0.40 0.75 ± 0.17 26.26 ± 0.75 26.55 ± 0.31 24.38 ± 0.84
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All the values presented in the table are means of three replicates (n = 3) ± standard deviation

Boiling and soaking significantly reduced the total glucosinolate content of the shoots and the effect increased as boiling and soaking time was elongated which may be due to leaching and hydrolysis of glucosinolate content into by-products. Drying is also very effective for reducing glucosinolate content and different drying methods showed great variation in the glucosinolate content of the investigated species with the least content recorded in the sun-dried shoots of all the species ranging from 158.60 to 193.70 mg/100 g d.w. Comparison of three drying methods revealed that sun drying was highly effective for removal of glucosinolates as compared to the oven drying and freeze-drying (Table 4). Similarly, when shoot samples were subjected to fermentation, there was a significant reduction in glucosinolate content and after six months of fermentation, it reduced to 8.69–6.99 mg/100 g f.w. when compared with the fresh shoots (29.99–26.45 mg/100 g f.w.). Effect of fermentation on glucosinolate content has also been studied in brassica and it was found that reduction was attributed to glucosinolate breakdown to glucose and sulphur moieties by microbial enzymes produced during fermentation (Aljuobori et al. 2014). The reduction in glucosinolate content was highest in the shoots soaked for 24 h. Although glucosinolates are considered as antinutrient compounds but anti-cancerous properties of bamboo shoots might be attributed to glucosinolates present in shoots of various bamboo species. It is seen that, 24 h soaking is the best technique to make bamboo shoots free from glucosinolate.

Oxalate

Oxalates are large crystalline chemical compounds formed when oxalic acid combines with minerals such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium and occurs widely in plants. When processed or digested, oxalic acid is released which binds with nutrients rendering them inaccessible to the body. Because of their ability to form stable complexes with minerals and other chemical groups, oxalates are known to interfere in the bioavailability of dietary nutrients thus reducing the nutritional value of consumed food. Radish, cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, parsley, beans, beets, blueberries and blackberries are some of the foods with high amounts of oxalates. Oxalate content in bamboo shoots ranged from 112.20 to 462 mg/100 g (Judprasong et al. 2006). Investigation of four bamboo species by Sharma (2018) revealed 264–287 mg/100 g f.w. of total oxalate content (Table 4). Depending on various factors, oxalate content varies in shoots of different species. In a recent study, Kong et al. (2020) compared the oxalate content in shoots of two bamboo species viz. Bambusa vulgaris and Gigantochloa ligulata and found that B. vulgaris shoots had higher amount of oxalate. Various processing strategies including soaking and boiling can significantly reduce the antinutritional content and make the shoots available throughout the year (Wang et al. 2020). All the processing treatments caused a decrease in the oxalate content of the fresh shoot and this reduction was highest after fermentation. Boiling for 30 min caused 21% (D. giganteous) to 23% (D. latiflorus) reduction in total oxalate content while slightly less reduction was seen after soaking ranging from 18% (B. tulda) to 20% (D. latiflorus). Reduction in total oxalate content upon soaking and boiling is mainly attributed to the diffusion and leaching out of soluble oxalates during boiling and soaking. Judprasong et al. (2006) found that boiling reduced the total oxalate content of bamboo shoots by 58%. Comparison of different drying methods revealed that freeze dried shoots of D. latiflorus had least amount of total oxalate content (280 mg/100 g d.w.) while maximum (480.29 mg/100 g) was present in the sun dried shoots of D. giganteus (Table 4). Higher total oxalate content of dried shoots is probably because of concentration of insoluble oxalate in the shoots due to removal of moisture during drying. Fermentation reduced the oxalate content by 37–56% (Table 4). Similar reduction in oxalate content after fermentation has been observed in other leafy vegetables and the reduction was attributed to hydrolytic action of enzymes produced during fermentation (Hassan et al. 2015). It was observed that fermentation and freeze drying are the best techniques for removal of oxalates from bamboo shoots.

Saponin

Saponins have a large bulky structure with several functional groups attached to it and interfere with membrane integrity of the cells and energy metabolism. They have a bitter taste and are toxic in high concentrations and can affect nutrient absorption by inhibiting enzymes as well as by binding with nutrients such as zinc. In general, saponins have been related to various health benefits such as immunostimulatory, hypocholesterolemic antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic activities (Oleszek and Oleszek 2020). Thus, it is vital to device efficient processing techniques ensuring their removal from the dietary sources. Saponin content in fresh shoots of four bamboo species ranged from 229.58 to 246.22 mg/100 g f.w. (Table 4) which was higher than the values reported by Sarangthem and Singh (2013) in an earlier investigation on the bamboo shoots (95.32 to 103.32 mg/100 g f.w.). Processing methods such as boiling and soaking removed the saponin content significantly; boiling was slightly more efficient in the removal of total saponin content as compared to the soaking treatment. After 30 min boiling, the highest reduction was 36.16% (B. tulda) while after 24 h soaking maximum reduction seen was 30.97% (B. tulda). Previous investigations in case of beans and lentils have also reported decline in the saponin content after boiling and soaking treatment which can be attributed to the thermal degradation and leaching into the processing medium (Ruiz et al. 1996). Among different drying methods employed, freeze dried shoots were found to have least saponin content (239–257 mg/100 g d.w.) while the oven dried shoot of the all the species had highest total saponin content (Table 4). Fermentation for 6 months reduced the total saponin content in shoots of investigated bamboo species by 18–20% (Sarangthem and Singh, 2013). Reduction in saponin content after fermentation may be attributed to the action of β-Glucosidase which catalyses the structural degradation of saponins resulting in their removal from the plant matrix (Lai et al. 2013).

Phytate

Phytate represent the major storage form of the phosphorus in plants. As a part of plant diet, phytates have shown to affect the nutrient availability by forming largely stable complexes with macronutrients such as protein and carbohydrates, thus rendering them available for digestion and absorption. On the basis of experiments conducted on rats, Lee et al. (1993) concluded that the metabolism of calcium, zinc and phosphorous was adversely affected when phytate was administered to the rats. It is known that phytate present in foods is one of the key concerns for the zinc deficiency in humans. Phytate content in the fresh shoots of four bamboo species ranged from 86 (B. tulda) to 97 mg/100 g f.w. (D. membranaceous) (Sharma 2018; Table 4). These values are significantly higher than the values (35.95 to 30.67 mg/100 g f.w.) reported by Sarangthem and Singh (2013). It was also reported that Bambusa vulgaris shoots had higher phytate content as compared to the shoots of Gigantochloa ligulata (Kong et al. 2020). Reductions in phytates increase the availability of soluble minerals by several folds and also increase the activity of other phenolic compounds (Luithui et al. 2019). Boiling and soaking were found to be successful in reducing the phytate content of the shoots though no significant difference was found in the efficiency of two methods with both treatments causing maximum reduction of about 65% at longest treatment duration (30 min. boiling and 24 h. soaking) as reported by Sharma (2018). After boiling, the reduction in phytate content ranged from 57% (D. membranaceous) to 65% (B. tulda). After soaking, reduction in phytate content ranged from 54% (D. membranaceous) to 64% (B. tulda). Reduction in phytate content with boiling and soaking has been reported in other food products also. Even though phytate is heat stable, it is water soluble so it may be lost into the processing medium by leaching during boiling and soaking. There was no significant difference in the phytate content of dried shoots though freeze-dried shoots exhibited least phytate content ranging from 45 to 57 mg/100 g d.w. When subjected to fermentation, phytate content of the shoots reduced considerably with even higher reduction as the fermentation duration increased to six months. Sarangthem and Singh (2013) reported about 38% reduction in the phytate content as compared to the fresh shoots after fermentation. Overall, after six month storage, 100% reduction was noticed in shoots of B. tulda and D. giganteus while 95% decline was observed in D. latiflorus and D. membranaceous.

Tannin

Tannins include large, condensed, polyphenolic compounds which are widespread in several plant families as a part of their natural defence mechanism against pest attacks. The presence of tannins along with other secondary metabolites such as saponins, flavonoids and polyphenols make the bamboo shoot extract to have several health benefits including antihypertensive activities (Sunarti and Octaviani 2020). However, tannins have been implicated with interfering in protein digestibility mainly by forming large complexes through a network of cross linkages. Thus, their removal from foods and food products prior to consumption is of vital importance. Sarangthem and Singh (2013) reported 31 to 45 mg/100 g of tannin in the fresh shoots of Bambusa balcooa and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii. Sharma (2018) investigated shoots of four species and reported 40 to 51 mg/100 g f.w. of tannin content (Table 4). Tannins being polyphenolic compounds are heat labile and water soluble, thus get easily degraded and removed by wet thermal processing techniques such as boiling and soaking. Boiling and soaking effectively removed the tannin content of the shoots and the maximum reduction was after boiling as seen in the shoots of D. membranaceous (48%) and after soaking in the shoots of D. latiflorus (50%). Different drying techniques did not result in much variation in the tannin content of the dried shoots, being in the range of 22.03 mg/100 g d.w. (D. latiflorus) to 31.89 mg/100 g d.w. (D. giganteus). Significant reduction of 87 to 98% in the tannin content was observed after fermentation (Sharma 2018). Similar reduction in tannin content was observed after fermentation in Colocasia esculenta and this reduction in tannin content during fermentation has been attributed to the hydrolytic action of the microbial enzymes produced during fermentation (Hassan et al. 2015). Hawashi et al. (2019) also perceived fermentation as the best technique for the removal of tannins from cassava leaves.

Conclusion

Bamboo shoot is gaining popularity worldwide as a nutritious and healthy vegetable. However, the antinutrients, mainly cyanogenic glycosides are a deterrent for its consumption due to its acrid taste. Other antinutrients include glucosinolates, phytates, oxalates, saponins and tannins. These antinutrients may have deleterious effect when present in high concentration. Though antinutrients can affect the bioavailability of nutrients and micronutrients and lead to nutrient deficiency and malnutrition, they may also exert beneficial health effects at low concentrations. Different processing methods such as soaking, boiling, drying, brine treatment and fermentation can reduce the antinutrients in bamboo shoot. Variation exists depending upon the species and processing method used. Of all the processing methods, fermentation is the best method for reducing the antinutrient content in bamboo shoots which has also been reported in other food crops. Reducing the antinutritional factors will provide consumer with safer food and increase the popularity of bamboo shoot.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (V45/MFPI/R&D/2000 Vol.IV), Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi (BT/475/NE/TBP/20132), and DST PURSE Grant, Govt. of India, American Bamboo Society and Ned Jaquith Foundation, USA for providing financial assistance to conduct this research work.

Author contributions

NC Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing-Reviewing and Editing, MSB Reviewing and Editing, TP Experiment, Writing-Original draft preparation HKB Data collection, Writing-Reviewing, VS Experiment, Data collection, OS Data collection, Editing, Reviewing.

Funding

Ministry of Food Processing Industries (V45/MFPI/R&D/2000 Vol.IV), Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi (BT/475/NE/TBP/20132), and DST PURSE Grant, Govt. of India, American Bamboo Society and Ned Jaquith Foundation, USA.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Availablity of data and material

Necessary Reference Cited in manuscript

Footnotes

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