Table 3.
Ecotoxicology of some of the COVID-19 therapeutic drugs reported in literature
| Drug | Ecotoxicological effects and remarks | References |
|---|---|---|
| Chloroquine | 24-h exposure EC50 for the inhibition of bioluminescence in bacteria (Aliivibrio fischeri) was 132.1 mg/L | Zurita et al. (2005) |
| Hydroxychloroquine | For algae (Raphidocelis subcapitata) the EC50 for the inhibition of growth rate after a 72-h exposure was 3.1 mg/L | FASS (2019) |
| Ivermectin | The EC50 in Daphnia magna was 25 ng/L, while the predicted NOEC for an invertebrate was about 10 ng/L | Montforts et al. (2003) |
| Niclosamide | 12-h exposure EC50 for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was of 0.11 mg/L | Hepditch et al. (2021) |
| Lopinavir | Predicted NOEC for algae was 0.05 μg/L which was below predicted effluent concentration (0.26 μg/L) | Acree Jr et al. (2012) |
| Ritonavir | The measured NOEC for green algae was less than 1.59 mg/L | EMA (2006) |
| Favipiravir | Lethal doses were 2000 mg/kg in mice, 2000 mg/kg in rats, and 1000 mg/kg in dogs | PubChem (2021) |
| Ribavirin | NOEC for growth inhibition in algae was less than 100 mg/L | Roche (2020) |
| Oseltamivir | NOEC for both oseltamivir and oseltamivir carboxylate was 1 mg/L in algae, fish, and daphnia | Straub (2009) |
| Umifenovir | Oral EC50 was 340–400 mg/kg in mice and > 3000 mg/kg in rats | Drugbank (2021) |
| Remdesivir | No ecotoxicological data, hence further research is needed | Cayman Chemical Co. (2020) |
NOEC no observable-effect concentration, EC50 half-maximal effective concentration