Table 2.
Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% CIs for the association between alcohol consumption and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) risk, separated by frequency of alcohol intake.
| Variables (a) | Frequency of alcohol intake, OR (95% Cl) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Once a month-twice/week | p | ≥ 3 times/week | p | |
| Alcohol consumption, dosage | ||||
| Never drinker, previous-drinkers or special occasions only | Reference | Reference | ||
| Within guidelines | 1.01 (0.92–1.11) | 0.8 | 0.96 (0.62–1.49) | 0.9 |
| Above guidelines | 1.06 (0.91–1.24) | 0.4 | 1.00 (0.64–1.54) | 1.0 |
| Double above the guidelines or more | 1.07 (0.85–1.35) | 0.6 | 1.04 (0.67–1.62) | 0.9 |
| Red wine drinkers | ||||
| Nondrinkers | Reference | Reference | ||
| 1–2 glasses/week | 0.89 (0.82–0.97) | 0.005 | 0.88 (0.81–0.97) | 0.006 |
| 3–4 glasses/week | 0.90 (0.82–1.00) | 0.044 | 0.90 (0.83–0.99) | 0.023 |
| ≥ 5 glasses/week | 0.82 (0.71–0.93) | 0.003 | 0.83 (0.77–0.89) | <0.001 |
| White wine and champagne drinkers | ||||
| Non-drinkers | Reference | Reference | ||
| 1–2 glasses/week | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 0.2 | 0.93 (0.86–1.01) | 0.069 |
| 3–4 glasses/week | 0.94 (0.84–1.05) | 0.3 | 0.91 (0.83–0.99) | 0.037 |
| ≥ 5 glasses/week | 1.06 (0.92–1.22) | 0.4 | 0.91 (0.85–0.99) | 0.019 |
| Beer and cider drinkers | ||||
| Non-drinkers | Reference | Reference | ||
| 1–2 glasses/week | 1.11 (1.03–1.21) | 0.01 | 1.06 (0.98–1.15) | 0.2 |
| 3–4 glasses/week | 1.24 (1.11–1.39) | <0.001 | 1.18 (1.07–1.31) | 0.001 |
| ≥ 5 glasses/week | 1.34 (1.17–1.53) | <0.001 | 1.31 (1.20–1.44) | <0.001 |
| Spirits drinkers | ||||
| Non-drinkers | Reference | Reference | ||
| 1–2 glasses/week | 0.99 (0.91–1.07) | 0.8 | 0.97 (0.90–1.04) | 0.4 |
| 3–4 glasses/week | 1.09 (0.97–1.23) | 0.1 | 1.02 (0.92–1.12) | 0.7 |
| ≥ 5 glasses/week | 1.11 (0.97–1.26) | 0.1 | 1.09 (1.01–1.17) | 0.033 |
| Fortified wine drinkers | ||||
| Non-drinkers | Reference | Reference | ||
| 1–2 glasses/week | 0.80 (0.69–0.92) | 0.002 | 0.93 (0.83–1.04) | 0.2 |
| 3–4 glasses/week | 0.94 (0.65–1.35) | 0.7 | 0.94 (0.74–1.19) | 0.6 |
| ≥ 5 glasses/week | 1.15 (0.70–1.89) | 0.6 | 1.07 (0.86–1.34) | 0.5 |
Logistic regression analysis adjusted for age, sex, education, ethnicity, employment, body mass index (BMI), overall health rating, Townsend, usually walking pace, cerebrovascular diseases, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, respiratory disease, cancer, amount of weekly intake level of alcohol consumption, red wine, champagne plus white wine, beer and cider, spirits, and fortified wine.