Table 2.

Common Helicobacter pylori transmission routes and preventive measures

Types of transmission	Transmission routes	Measures for prevention
1. Oral–oral transmission.	Chewing food before feeding children; kissing; consuming contaminated water, meat, milk, vegetables and other foods; poor hygiene practice, etc	Avoid chewing food before feeding to infants and young children; eat healthy and safe foods; implement good personal hygiene practice.
2. Shared utensils or equipment transmission.	Sharing food utensils, such as dishes, bowls, chopsticks, spoons and other food containers; using contaminated dental equipment, etc	Do not share food utensils such as plates and food wares; implement individual dining and serving; separate use of chopsticks, spoons, etc; use safe dental equipment.
3. Fecal–oral transmission.	Drinking water or eating food contaminated by excrement, such as well water and untreated water	Consume only hygienic and safe food and water.
4. Iatrogenic transmission.	Intimate contact with people infected with H. pylori or contaminated equipment, medical equipment that has not been thoroughly disinfected, etc	Avoid intimate contact with H. pylori-infected persons and suspicious equipment; thoroughly disinfect medical equipment.