TABLE 1.
Demographic characteristics of total participants [expressed in mean ± SD or number (%)].
| Parameters | Total participants (n = 35) | Reference range a,b,c,d,e |
| Age (years) a | 65.03 ± 3.36 | 69.5 |
| Gender (men, %) a | 10 (28.60) | N/A |
| Education (years) a | 9.26 ± 4.07 | 5.5 |
| Household income (USD/month) a | 402.24 ± 183.43 | 336 |
| Hypertension (n, %) b | 15 (42.90) | 37% |
| Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (n, %)b | 6 (17.10) | 41.5% |
| Hyperlipidemia (n, %)b | 15 (42.90) | 60.8% |
| Height (cm) | 156.73 ± 7.83 | N/A |
| Weight (kg)a | 64.40 ± 10.48 | 62.4 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2)c | 26.12 ± 3.01 | 22–27 |
| Waist circumference (cm)d | 88.33 ± 8.39 | <90 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) d | 132.91 ± 16.05 | 120 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)d | 72.63 ± 10.02 | 80 |
| Fasting blood glucose (mmol/L)e | 5.46 ± 1.17 | 3.9–5.6 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L)e | 5.40 ± 0.96 | <5.2 |
| Low density lipoprotein (mmol/L)e | 3.27 ± 0.90 | <2.6 |
| High density lipoprotein (mmol/L)e | 1.52 ± 0.37 | >1.04 |
| Triglyceride (mmol/L)e | 1.38 ± 0.55 | <1.7 |
| Sodium (mmol/L)e | 141.51 ± 3.06 | 137–150 |
| Potassium (mmol/L)e | 4.45 ± 0.52 | 3.5–5.3 |
| Urea (mmol/L)e | 4.34 ± 1.11 | 1.7–8.4 |
| Creatinine (μmol/L)e | 69.31 ± 18.16 | 62–115 |
| Uric acid (μmol/L)e | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 0.20–0.42 |
| Total protein (g/L)e | 72.51 ± 6.20 | 57–82 |
| Albumin (g/L)e | 43.91 ± 2.38 | 32–48 |
| Globulin (g/L)e | 28.63 ± 6.53 | 20–50 |
| Total bilirubin (μmol/L)e | 11.86 ± 4.77 | 3–19 |
| Alkaline phosphatase (U/L)e | 74.54 ± 17.11 | 39–117 |
| Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (U/L)e | 20.20 ± 11.19 | 0–40 |
| Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (U/L)e | 22.71 ± 5.43 | 0–40 |
| Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (pg/ml) | 182.31 ± 29.21 | N/A |
| Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (ng/ml) | 1.34 ± 0.70 | N/A |
| Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (pg/ml) | 114.52 ± 53.56 | N/A |
| Malondialdehyde (MDA) (ng/ml) | 211.22 ± 50.27 | N/A |
| Neuropsychological batteries | ||
| MMSE a | 25.94 ± 2.18 | 19 |
| Digit Span (Scaled score)a | 13.14 ± 1.90 | 7.7 |
| RAVLT immediate recall a | 6.83 ± 1.47 | 7 |
| RAVLT delayed recalla | 6.11 ± 2.01 | 6 |
| Digit Symbol (Scaled score)a | 7.63 ± 2.43 | 8 |
| fMRI behavioral performance | ||
| Reaction accuracy (N-back) (%) | 62.07 ± 10.59 | N/A |
| Reaction time (N-back) (ms) | 2245.95 ± 297.87 | N/A |
| RT/RA index | 37.35 ± 8.87 | N/A |
| fMRI brain activation | ||
| 0-back mean percent signal change (%) Left DLPFC | 0.73 ± 0.52 | N/A |
| 0-back mean percent signal change (%) Right DLPFC | 0.83 ± 0.40 | N/A |
| 1-back mean percent signal change (%) Left DLPFC | 0.82 ± 0.49 | N/A |
| 1-back mean percent signal change (%) Right DLPFC | 0.94 ± 0.40 | N/A |
aNationwide aging population research in Malaysia (Shahar et al., 2016).
bNational Health and Morbidity Survey 2019 in Malaysia.
cBody mass index for older adults (Winter et al., 2014).
dWHO cutoff guidelines (World Health Organisation, 2011).
eNormal range values from the accredited biomedical laboratory. DLPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; fMRI, functional MRI; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; RAVLT, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test; RA, reaction accuracy; and RT, reaction time.