Figure 15.

Schematic representation of the molecular pathways implied in the protective potential of astaxanthin (AXT): Due to its membrane penetrance, AXT has both intra- and extracellular ROS scavenging actions. Moreover, in the phospholipid membrane, the AXT polyene chain participates in the reduction of lipid peroxidation. Through the regulation of various pathways, AXT reduces inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Red arrows indicate inhibitory action, and green arrows show enhancement action. Reprinted from ref (260) under open access license.