Table 3.

Example of studies that have used rearing designs that explicitly recorded family-level variation in ecologically important monarch traits. Monarch family refers to all offspring from one female butterfly

Study	Trait(s) assayed	Finding
Altizer and Davis (2010)	Forewing size, forewing shape	Substantial variation among families; substantial variation among populations (eastern, western, South Florida) corresponding to migratory status
Ladner and Altizer (2005)	Larval performance across host plants, oviposition preference	Substantial variation among families for oviposition preference and performance across hosts
Freedman et al. (2020)	Larval performance across host plants	Substantial variation in family quality, but little family-level variation in performance rank order across host species
Freedman et al. (2018)	Induction of reproductive arrest	Substantial family-level variation in post-eclosion reproductive development in monarchs from Australia
Davis et al. (2005)	Larval and adult melanism	Substantial variation among families and between populations (eastern, western, South Florida)
De Roode and Altizer (2010)	Resistance to OE	Strong host family effects for level of parasite virulence
Sternberg et al. (2013)	Tolerance to OE	Substantial variation among families and between populations (eastern, western, South Florida, Hawaii)