Table 4.

Outstanding monarch research questions that would directly inform ongoing conservation efforts

Question	Research need
Does larval diet influence mating success and egg production (both larval and adult diet)? Diet effect on milkweed preference- generational esp. during the summer Impact of including targeted disturbance into conservation plans	Assessment of nutritional quality and diet toxicity on adult traits that influence mating behavior, success, and egg production. Comparison of larval and adult milkweed preferences based on natal diet and plant quality Examination of timing and frequency of disturbance and the interactions between monarchs, enemies, and other milkweed specialists in different habitat types (grasslands, roadsides, right of ways, managed gardens)
What chemical features of exotic milkweeds decrease odds of reproductive dormancy in fall generation monarchs? Have natal origins and the prevalence of winter breeding changed in western North American monarchs?	Comparing changes in nutritional quality and cardenolide content of native vs. exotic milkweeds from late summer to autumn (1) Comparison of overwintering monarch stable isotopes across years to see if natal origins have changed (e.g., Flockhart et al. 2017) (2) Comparison of cardenolide fingerprints across years to see if A. curassavica fingerprint has become more common through time.
Have monarch overwintering numbers in Mexico declined since collections there began?	Comparison of polymorphism data from DNA sequences of historical versus contemporary specimens to see whether there is an appreciable change in genetic diversity