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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Aug 23.
Published in final edited form as: Nat Biomed Eng. 2021 Aug 23;5(8):793–804. doi: 10.1038/s41551-021-00784-z

Fig. 4 |. Vitrification.

Fig. 4 |

a, Steps in vitrification, and the mechanisms of the cryoinjuries that it can cause. b, Automated loading of cryoprotectant agents (CPAs) to minimize loading time, cell exposure to the agents, and osmotic stresses. c, Local vitrification via hydrogel microencapsulation. Hydrogel microcapsules inhibit devitrification and ice recrystallization during warming, and create an ice-free microenvironment for the encapsulated biospecimens. d, Droplet vitrification by ‘shooting’ cell-laden microdroplets into liquid nitrogen. During rapid cooling, a gas bubble (grey) can form around the microdroplets (Leidenfrost effect), causing reduced cooling rates. e, Nanoscale heating, which combines nanoparticles (yellow) and electromagnetic fields, can significantly increase warming rates, and thus alleviate cryoinjuries and the volume constraints of vitrification.