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Schematic diagram of sleep deprivation and astrocytes. Sleep deprivation (SD) increases the exocytosis of ATP from astrocytes via vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)-dependent mechanisms. The elevated extracellular ATP (ATPo) is quickly converted to adenosine, and the tone of adenosine is increased. Adenosine acts on A1 receptors in neurons and increases sleep pressure. An increase in sleep pressure by adenosine/A1 receptors is highly involved in the antidepressive effect.
