Figure - PMC

Skip to main content

An official website of the United States government

Here's how you know

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov
A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

View full-text article in PMC

. 2022 Jan 19;289(1967):20212155. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2155

Search in PMC
Search in PubMed
View in NLM Catalog
Add to search

© 2022 The Authors.

Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.

PMC Copyright notice

Figure 2. — Mechanisms that can mediate the interactions between co-infecting organisms. Examples of direct and indirect mechanisms of interaction are illustrated. Genetic exchange: sexual exchange between African trypanosomes in a co-infected tsetse fly, or horizontal transfer of DNA between Plasmodium infected red blood cells via extracellular vesicles. Direct exchange of signals: interspecies quorum sensing between African trypanosomes altering transmission potential. Competition for nutrients: an established Plasmodium infection increases host production of hepcidin diverting iron away from the liver, inhibiting invasion by superinfecting parasites. Immune mediated: the microbiota can influence the immune environment of a host to affect malaria infection. Created with BioRender.com. (Online version in colour.)