. 2021 May 31;21(16):17643–17656. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2021.3085084

TABLE I. Electrode Materials for the Respiratory Viral Detection.

Sensor method	Electrode materials	Virus	Recognition element	Linear range	LOD	Time	References
EIS	shellac-derived TrGO/ITO/glass	Influenza virus H1N1	Anti-Influenza A Ab	–	PBS: 26.04 PFU/mL Saliva: 33.11 PFU/mL	–	[56]
EIS	Au- paper electrode	H1N1 Antigen	Anti-influenza A HA Ab	–	< 5 PFU mL⁻¹	~6 min	[57]
EIS CV	Cysteine modified Au-screen electrode	H1N1	HA gene specific ssDNA probe	0.1 ng – 400 ng/	0.004 ng in	30 min	[58]
EIS	nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond	Influenza Virus M1 protein H1N1, H3N2	Polyclonal aM1 Ab	–	g/mL	6 min	[59]
EIS	Nano-scale BDD sensor	Influenza A M1 protein	anti-M1Ab,	1 to 100 fgmL⁻¹	1 fg/mL	5 min	[60]
EIS	Au electrode	inactivated intact H1N1virus	DNA aptamers	–	0.3ng/	–	[61]
EIS	AuSPE/Gr/Au hybrid nanocomposite	Influenza A H9N2	Feutin A	10⁻⁸ U/mL-10⁻¹ U/mL	10⁻⁸U/mL	–	[62]
CV	Fe₃O₄ MNPs	AIV H5N1	Specific Anti-H5N1 Ab	0.0025 - 0.16 HAU	0.0022 HAU in	–	[63]
CV	AuNPs	H5N1	DNA probe	1pM - 100 nM	1 pM	–	[64]
CV	Dual electrode of tungsten rods modified with 3DNRE porous silica film	AIV	anti-AIV NP aptamer	2 to 12 nM	1.13 nM	–	[65]
DPV	Hydrophobic SiNPs on paper	Influenza H1N1 antigen, Ab	Immobilized antibodies	10 to 10⁴ PFU mL⁻¹	113 PFU mL⁻¹	30 min	[66]
DPV	modified ITO/glass electrodes	H1N1 mini-HA protein	ssDNA aptamer	10¹ PFU mL⁻¹ – 10⁴ PFU mL⁻¹	3.7 PFU mL⁻¹	–	[67]
CV DPV	FTO/AuNPs sensor	SARS-CoV-2	immobilized with nCovid-19Ab	1 fM –	10 fM at nCovid-19Ag	10 - 30 s	[68]
CA	AuNPs	influenza virus A/H9N2	anti-Matrix protein 2 (M2) Ab and Feutin A	8 – 128 HAU	8 HAU	160 s	[69]
CA	RGO nanosheets	Human Influenza A H1N1	monoclonal antibodies	1 – 10⁴ PFU mL⁻¹	0.5 PFU mL⁻¹,	–	[70]
BERA	Membrane-Engineered Vero Cells (Vero/Anti-S1)	SARS-CoV-2 S1 Protein Antigen	spike S1 Ab	10 fg – /mL	1 fg/mL	3 min	[71]
Fluoroimmunoassay	gCNQDs/MP-MoO₃QDs	influenza virus A (H3N2) RNA	Ab-(H3N2)	45– 25,000 PFU/mL	45 PFU/mL	–	[72]
Fluoroimmunoassay	S-gCNQDs/Ag₂S nanocrystals	influenza A virus (H1N1) (H3N2)	monoclonal Ab	10 fg/mL– 1ng/mL 10² – PFU/mL	5.5 fg/mL 100 PFU/mL	~ 15 min	[73]
FET	Graphene Sheet	spike protein in SARS-CoV-2	SARS-CoV-2 spike Ab	–	cultured medium: pfu/mL clinical samples: copies/mL	–	[53]
FET	rGO transistor	H5N1	Immobilized DNA probe	10 pM – 100 nM	5 pM	1 h	[74]
FET	Cu/Au/SiO₂	AIV H5N1	Immobilized DNA aptamer	10 pM – 10 nM	5.9 pM	–	[75]
Gr-FET	Gr synthesized on single crystal Cu⁺³	coronavirus	CSAb/ACE2	< 0.1 pM	0.2 pM	2 min	[76]
Amperometry	3,4- EDOT PSS thin film	influenza A virus	HA protein	–	0.025 HAU	–	[77]
Amperometry	Co-TNTs	spike glycoprotein SARS-CoV-2	anti-His monoclonal Ab	14 – 1400 nM	~0.7 nM	~30 s	[78]
SWV	AuNPs on CE	MERS-CoV HCoV	Anti-recombinant spike protein Ab	MERS-CoV: 0.001 – 100 ng.mL⁻¹ HCoV: 0.01– 10,000 ng.mL⁻¹	MERS-CoV 1.0 pg/mL HCoV 0.4 pg/mL	20 min	[50]
OSWV	Au-electrodes	H5N1	immobilization of ss-amino-DNA probe	–	3 copies/	–	[79]
DPV EIS	AuNPs	Corona virus viral RNA/c-DNA	immobilized capture probe	–	–	–	[80]
Optical Silica Inverse Opal	SiO₂-IO nanostructures	HA protein in influenza A (H1N1)	(H1N1) virus capture Ab (HA-1)	103–105 PFU	–	–	[86]
LSPR; colorimetric assay	AuNPs	MERS-CoV	thiol-modified probes	–	1 pmol/	–	[87]
IM-SPR	Bimetallic silver–gold	HA protein in H7N9 virus	monoclonal Ab	to copies/mL	402 copies/mL	< 10 min	[88]
SPR	Au	influenza A (H5N1)	H5N1 virus protein	–	193.3 ng mL⁻¹	–	[33]
LSPR/FL-LSPR	AuNP	influenza virus H3N2	–	–	0.4 pg/mL 10 PFU/mL	~5 min	[89]
LSPR	hAuSN immobilized on ITO	AIV H5N1	DNA 3 way-Junction (3WJ)	–	1 pM	–	[90]
fluorescence assay	DNA triplex assembly	avian influenza A (H7N9)	berberine	0.2–100 nM	0.14 nM	–	[91]
colorimetric assay	AuNPs	SARS-CoV-2	antisense oligonucleotides	0.2–3 ng/	0.18 ng/	10 min	[92]
lateral flow immune assay	AuNP colloids	SARS-Cov-2	COVID-19 recombinant antigen	–	–	15 min	[93]
CRISPR-based assay	CRISPR-based fluorescent sensor	SARS-CoV-2	Cas12a/gRNA complex	–	2 copies per sample	~50 min	[94]
PPT effect/LSPR	gold nanoislands (AuNIs)	SARS-CoV-2	complementary DNA receptors	–	0.22 pM	–	[95]
colorimetric assay	silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)	MERS-CoV	pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcPNA)	–	1.53 nM	–	[83]
P-FAB	AuNPs based on the U-bent optical fiber sensor system	Target Nucleocapsid protein N-protein	anti-N protein monoclonal antibodies	–	10–18 M	15 min	[96]
EWA LSPR	AuNPs or polyaniline-coated optical fibers	specific surface proteins SARS-CoV-2	antibodies for unique S1 subunit of the S protein	–	37 pM	–	[97]
Piezoelectric – SPM	Lead zirconate titanate piezoelectric disk	H5N3	SL-PAA polymer/H5N3 surface glycoprotein	10.05 – 10.07 vp/mL	10.05 vp/mL	–	[100]
Piezoelectric immunosensor	SAM of mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA)	Aerosolized influenza A (H3N2) Virions	Polyclonal anti-influenza A (H3N2) antibodies	0.02 - 3 HAU	29.6 ng/mL	–	[103]
Piezoelectric Immunosensor	Horse polyclonal antibody against SARS-CoV attached to PZ crystal surface	SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV)	SARS antigen	0.6 - 4 /mL	–	–	[104]
Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) based piezoelectric sensor	Gold surface of the crystal	African swine fever virus	Protein p12	4.6 - 300 /mL	–	–	[105]

EIS — Electrochemical Impedance spectroscopy, SiNPs — Silica Nanoparticles, CV — Cyclic Voltammetry, CA — Chronoamperomtery, DPV — Differential Pulse Voltammetry, FET — Field-Effect Transistor, Gr-FET — Graphene Field-Effect Transistor, BERA — Bioelectric Recognition Assay, OSWV — Osteryoung Square Wave Voltammetry, SWV — Squarewave Voltammetry, PBS — Phosphate-buffered Saline, S-gCNQDs — Sulfur-doped Graphitic Carbon Nitride Quantum Dots, MNPs — Magnetic Nanoparticles, BDD — Boron Doped Diamond, Ab — Antibody, CSAb — Spike S1 Subunit Protein Antibody, Co-TNTs — Cobalt-functionalized TiO2 Nanotubes, aM1 Ab — Anti-M1 Antibodies, NP — NucleoProtein, rGO — Reduced Graphene Oxide, CE — carbon electrode, AIV — Avian Influenza Virus, EDOT — Ethylenedioxythiophene, HA — Hemagglutinin, ss — single stranded, 3DNRE — 3D Nanostructured, ITO — Indium Tin Oxide, nCovid-19Ab — nCovid-19 monoclonal antibody, FTO — Fluorine-doped Tin Oxide electrode, AuNPs — Gold Nanoparticle, TrGO — Thermally-decomposed rGO, MP-MoO3QDs — Plasmonic Molybdenum Trioxide Quantum Dots, gCNQDs — graphitic Carbon Nitride Quantum Dots, AuSPE — Gold Screen Printed Electrode LSPR — Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance, IM-SPR — Intensity-Modulated Surface Plasmon Resonance, FL-LSPR — Induced Immunofluorescence, PBS — Phosphate-buffered Saline, SiO2-IO — SiO2-based Inverse Opal, hAuSN — hollow Au Spike-like Nanoparticle, ITO — Indium-Tin-Oxide, AuNIs — Gold Nanoislands, PPT — Plasmonic Photothermal, P-FAB — Plasmoni Fiber Optic Sensor, EWA — Evanescent Wave Absorbance