Table 1.
Reported individual and household characteristics and the number of individuals positive for STH, S. haematobium and malaria infections
| Factor | Number examined (%) |
STH infectiona | S. haematobium | Malaria | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| STH combined | Hookworm | T. trichiura | ||||
| Overall | 534 (100.0%) | 30 (5.6%) | 28 (5.3%) | 3 (0.6%) | 20 (3.8%) | 26 (4.9%) |
| Demographic characteristics | ||||||
| Age groups | ||||||
| 20 years and below | 100 (18.7%) | 4 (4.0%) | 4 (4.0%) | 0 | 6 (6.0%) | 8 (8.1%) |
| 21–30 years | 220 (41.2%) | 14 (6.4%) | 14 (6.4%) | 1 (0.5%) | 11 (5.1%) | 11 (5.0%) |
| 31–40 years | 149 (27.9%) | 11 (7.4%) | 10 (6.7%) | 1 (0.7%) | 3 (2.0%) | 4 (2.7%)* |
| 41–50 years | 65 (12.2%) | 1 (1.6%) | 0 | 1 (1.6%) | 0 | 3 (4.6%) |
| Level of education | ||||||
| None | 151 (28.3%) | 12 (7.9%) | 12 (7.9%) | 1 (0.7%) | 6 (3.9%) | 6 (3.9%) |
| Primary | 313 (59.7%) | 18 (5.8%) | 16 (5.1%) | 2 (0.6%) | 11 (3.6%) | 18 (5.8%) |
| Secondary | 60 (11.2%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 (5.0%) | 2 (3.4%) |
| Post-secondary | 10 (1.9%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Average income (Ksh) | ||||||
| Below 15,000 | 461 (86.3%) | 23 (5.0%) | 21 (4.6%) | 3 (0.7%) | 17 (3.7%) | 22 (4.8%) |
| Between 15,000–30,000 | 52 (9.7%) | 5 (9.6%) | 5 (9.6%) | 0 | 3 (5.8%) | 2 (3.9%) |
| Above 30,000 | 21 (3.9%) | 2 (9.5%) | 2 (9.5%) | 0 | 0 | 2 (9.5%) |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Single/divorced/widowed | 121 (22.7%) | 5 (4.1%) | 5 (4.1%) | 0 | 4 (3.3%) | 5 (4.2%) |
| Married | 413 (77.3%) | 25 (6.1%) | 23 (5.6%) | 3 (0.7%) | 16 (3.9%) | 21 (5.1%) |
| Occupation | ||||||
| Farmer | 195 (36.5%) | 12 (6.2%) | 12 (6.2%) | 0 | 9 (4.6%) | 9 (4.6%) |
| Business | 99 (18.5%) | 7 (7.1%) | 7 (7.1%) | 0 | 4 (4.0%) | 6 (6.1%) |
| Housewife/No job | 177 (33.2%) | 7 (3.9%) | 5 (2.8%)* | 3 (1.7%) | 5 (2.9%) | 10 (5.7%) |
| Salaried worker | 9 (1.7%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Casual laborer | 23 (4.3%) | 3 (13.0%)* | 3 (13.0%)* | 0 | 2 (8.7%) | 1 (4.4%) |
| Others | 31 (5.8%) | 1 (3.2%) | 1 (3.2%) | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Religion | ||||||
| Christian | 52 (9.7%) | 4 (7.7%) | 4 (7.7%) | 0 | 3 (5.8%) | 3 (5.8%) |
| Islam | 482 (90.3%) | 26 (5.4%) | 24 (4.9%) | 3 (0.6%) | 17 (3.6%) | 23 (4.8%) |
| Pregnancy factors | ||||||
| Pregnancy result | ||||||
| Positive | 77 (14.5%) | 4 (5.2%) | 4 (5.2%) | 0 | 6 (7.9%)** | 9 (11.7%)*** |
| Negative | 455 (85.5%) | 25 (5.5%) | 23 (5.1%) | 3 (0.7%) | 14 (3.1%) | 17 (3.7%) |
| Age when first pregnant | ||||||
| < 18 years | 127 (27.2%) | 10 (7.9%) | 9 (7.1%) | 1 (0.8%) | 4 (3.2%) | 6 (4.7%) |
| 18–25 years | 321 (68.7%) | 18 (5.6%) | 17 (5.3%) | 2 (0.6%) | 12 (3.8%) | 17 (5.3%) |
| > 25 years | 19 (4.1%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 (5.3%) | 1 (5.3%) |
| Number of pregnancies in lifetime | ||||||
| One | 61 (13.1%) | 2 (3.3%) | 2 (3.3%) | 0 | 4 (6.6%) | 7 (11.5%) |
| Two | 67 (14.4%) | 2 (2.9%) | 2 (2.9%) | 1 (1.5%) | 3 (4.6%) | 4 (5.9%) |
| More than two | 339 (72.6%) | 24 (7.1%) | 22 (6.5%) | 2 (0.6%) | 10 (2.9%) | 13 (3.8%)** |
| Ownership of a mosquito net | ||||||
| Yes | 58 (87.8%) | 4 (6.9%) | 4 (6.9%) | 0 | 5 (8.8%) | 7 (12.1%) |
| No | 8 (12.1%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 (12.5%) | 2 (25.0%) |
| Given iron | ||||||
| Yes | 35 (53.0%) | 2 (5.7%) | 2 (5.7%) | 0 | 3 (8.8%) | 4 (11.4%) |
| No | 31 (46.9%) | 2 (6.5%) | 2 (6.5%) | 0 | 3 (9.7%) | 5 (16.1%) |
| Taken deworming tablets | ||||||
| Yes | 24 (36.4%) | 2 (8.3%) | 2 (8.3%) | 0 | 2 (8.3%) | 3 (12.5%) |
| No | 42 (63.6%) | 2 (4.8%) | 2 (4.8%) | 0 | 4 (9.8%) | 6 (14.3%) |
| Taken antimalarial tablets | ||||||
| Yes | 33 (50.0%) | 2 (6.1%) | 2 (6.1%) | 0 | 2 (6.1%) | 5 (15.2%) |
| No | 33 (50.0%) | 2 (6.1%) | 2 (6.1%) | 0 | 4 (12.5%) | 4 (12.1%) |
| Individual WASH factors | ||||||
| Handwash after helping child defecate | ||||||
| Always | 372 (69.7%) | 20 (5.4%) | 19 (5.1%) | 2 (0.5%) | 8 (2.2%) | 14 (3.8%) |
| Sometimes | 140 (26.2%) | 8 (5.7%) | 7 (5.0%) | 1 (0.7%) | 10 (7.1%)** | 10 (7.1%) |
| Never | 22 (4.1%) | 2 (9.1%) | 2 (9.1%) | 0 | 2 (9.1%) | 2 (9.1%)* |
| Handwash before preparing food | ||||||
| Always | 370 (69.3%) | 20 (5.4%) | 20 (5.4%) | 1 (0.3%) | 11 (2.9%) | 17 (4.6%) |
| Sometimes | 114 (21.4%) | 8 (7.0%) | 6 (5.3%) | 2 (1.8%) | 7 (6.2%) | 7 (6.2%) |
| Never | 50 (9.4%) | 2 (4.0%) | 2 (4.0%) | 0 | 2 (4.1%) | 2 (4.0%) |
| Handwash after toilet use | ||||||
| Always | 471 (88.2%) | 26 (5.5%) | 25 (5.3%) | 2 (0.4%) | 18 (3.9%) | 24 (5.1%) |
| Sometimes | 48 (8.9%) | 2 (4.2%) | 1 (2.1%) | 1 (2.1%) | 2 (4.2%) | 2 (4.2%) |
| Never | 15 (2.8%) | 2 (13.3%) | 2 (13.3%) | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Anal cleansing material used | ||||||
| Toilet paper | 7 (1.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) | 1 (14.3%) |
| Water | 521 (97.6%) | 29 (5.6%) | 27 (5.2%) | 2 (0.4%) | 19 (3.7%) | 25 (4.8%) |
| Leaves | 6 (1.1%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Household WASH factors | ||||||
| Improved water source for drinking | 354 (66.3%) | 21 (5.9%) | 20 (5.7%) | 2 (0.6%) | 14 (3.9%) | 22 (6.2%) |
| Improved water source for household use | 274 (51.3%) | 17 (6.3%) | 16 (5.9%) | 2 (0.7%) | 12 (4.4%) | 19 (6.9%)* |
| Treatment of drinking water | 92 (17.2%) | 5 (5.4%) | 5 (5.4%) | 0 | 6 (6.6%)** | 5 (5.4%) |
| Methods for water treatment | ||||||
| Boiling | 21 (22.8%) | 3 (14.3%) | 3 (14.3%) | 0 | 2 (9.5%) | 1 (4.8%) |
| Chlorine/Bleach | 66 (71.7%) | 2 (3.0%)*** | 2 (3.0%)*** | 0 | 4 (6.2%) | 3 (4.6%) |
| Others | 5 (5.4%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 (20.0%) |
| Improved latrine facility | 417 (78.1%) | 28 (6.7%)** | 26 (6.3%)* | 3 (0.7%) | 14 (3.4%) | 20 (4.8%) |
| Shared latrine with other households | 197 (36.9%) | 6 (3.1%) | 5 (2.5%) | 1 (0.5%) | 4 (2.1%)* | 12 (6.1%) |
| Household assets | ||||||
| Electricity | 245 (45.9%) | 10 (4.1%)* | 9 (3.7%)* | 1 (0.4%) | 6 (2.5%) | 11 (4.5%) |
| Radio | 265 (49.6%) | 14 (5.3%) | 12 (4.6%) | 2 (0.8%) | 10 (3.8%) | 13 (4.8%) |
| Television | 64 (11.9%) | 4 (6.3%) | 3 (4.7%) | 1 (1.6%) | 2 (3.1%) | 2 (3.2%) |
| Mobile phone | 481 (90.1%) | 28 (5.8%) | 26 (5.4%) | 3 (0.6%) | 17 (3.6%) | 22 (4.6%) |
| Bank account | 103 (19.3%) | 4 (3.9%) | 4 (3.9%) | 0 | 5 (4.9%) | 4 (3.9%) |
| Agricultural land | 503 (94.2%) | 28 (5.6%) | 26 (5.2%) | 3 (0.6%) | 20 (4.0%) | 24 (4.8%) |
| Cows and goats | 306 (57.3%) | 16 (5.3%) | 16 (5.2%) | 1 (0.3%) | 11 (3.6%) | 14 (4.6%) |
| Chicken and ducks | 486 (91.0%) | 28 (5.8%) | 26 (5.4%) | 3 (0.6%) | 19 (3.9%) | 22 (4.5%)* |
aAscarislumbricoides was not included in the analysis because no cases were recorded for this particular STH species
*indicates significance at p ≤ 0.05, **indicates significance at p ≤ 0.01, ***indicates significance at p ≤ 0.001