Figure 1.

Helminth induced interactions between epithelial, neural, and immune cells. Upon infection tuft cells (TC) release IL-25 and other intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) secrete TSLP, IL-33, and ATP, signaling tissue damage. Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2) stimulated by alarmins release IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13, inducing goblet cell secretion, alternatively activated macrophages (AAM), and eosinophilia. ILC2 also cooperate with the nervous system, and upon being stimulated by neuromedin U release amphiregulin which has tissue-protective properties. Enteroendocrine cells in response to IL-33 release serotonin which induces muscle contraction or epithelium permeability.