Table 1.

Pharmacological effects of classical AEDs, antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds on epilepsy, OS and inflammatory markers.

Class	Drug	Mechanism of Action	Type of Seizure Targeted	Effects on OS and Inflammation Markers in Epilepsy (Pre- and Clinical Data)	References
Classical anti-epileptic	Valproic acid	Blocks voltage-gated ion channels	Focal and generalized	Increased lipid peroxidation	[111]
	Phenytoin	Blocks voltage-gated sodium channels	Tonic-clonic	Reduced antioxidant capacity and glutathione concentration; Increased lipid peroxidation	[112,113]
	Carbamazepine	Blocks sodium channels	Focal and generalized	Decreased lipid peroxidation; Increased NO release	[114]
	Barbitures	Potentiates GABA signalling	Generalized	Decreased lipid peroxidation; Reduced levels of antioxidant enzymes	[115]
	Benzodiazepines	Facilitates GABA binding to GABAA receptors	Status epilepticus	Decreased lipid peroxidation	[116]
	Cenobamate	Blocks voltage-gated sodium channels. Allosteric agonist of GABA receptors	Uncontrolled focal	Activation of the PI3K/Akt-CREB-BDNF pathway	[117,118]
	Lamotrigine	Binds to the inactive sodium channel	Focal and generalized	Increased antioxidant defence; Reduced mitochondrial redox activity	[119]
Antioxidant	Cannabidiol	Inhibits GRP55; Desensitizes receptor potential vanilloid type-1; Inhibits adenosine uptake,	Drug-resistant	Decreased ROS production; Increased antioxidant defences	[120,121,122]
	Naringenin	Free radical scavenger	Pilocarpine-induced	Increased glutathione and antioxidant enzymes levels	[123]
	Coenzyme Q10	Increases the levels of TCA and antioxidant enzymes	Pilocarpine-induced	Increased SOD and GSH levels, reduced lipid peroxidation	[124]
	N-acetylcysteine	Reduces glutathione precursor	Pentylenetetrazole-induced	Attenuated the impairment in glutathione homeostasis	[125]
	Curcumin	Free radical scavenger and metal chelator	Pentylenetetrazole-induced	Increased superoxide dismutase levels Reduced the expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines Reduced GFAP and IBA-1 markers	[126]
	Vitamin E	Peroxyl radical scavenger	Refractory	Increased antioxidant capacity. Increased catalase and glutathione levels	[127]
	Sulforaphane	Activates NRF2/ARE pathway	Status epilepticus	Decreased malondialdehyde levels and increased glutathione levels	[128]
Anti-inflammatory	Anakinra	Antagonist of IL-1 receptor	Febrile infection- related epilepsy syndrome and Intractable epilepsy	Reduced IL-1 driven systemic autoinflammation	[129,130,131,132]
	Anakinra + Canakinumab	Antagonist of IL-1 receptor; Monoclonal antibody against the IL-1 receptor	Generalized
	Tocilizumab	Anti-IL-6 monoclonal antibody	Status epilepticus, acute epilepsy	Reduced IL-6 levels	[133,134]
	Minocycline	Inhibitor of microglia activation	Drug-resistant	Supressed IL-1β release from microglia	[135]
	Adalimumab	Anti-TNF monoclonal antibody	Partial and focal motor seizures	Reduced TNF-α levels	[136]
	Aspirin	Cyclooxygenase inhibitor	Focal-onset	Not reported	[137,138]
	VX09-765-401	IL-1β inhibitor	Partial seizures	Not reported	[139]