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. 2022 Jan 8;11(1):136. doi: 10.3390/antiox11010136

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Role of pure phytochemicals from the cocoa shell (50 µmol L⁻¹), aqueous extract (CAE, 100 µg mL⁻¹), and FGF21 (20 nmol L⁻¹), in the presence of palmitic acid (PA, 500 µmol L⁻¹), on lipo/cytotoxicity and inflammation markers in HepG2 human hepatocytes. Cocoa shell phytochemicals preserved cell viability (A) and diminished lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release (B). PA-triggered TNF-α (C), IL-6 (D), and IL-1β (E) release and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity (F) were reduced. Hierarchical cluster analysis and heat map (from the lowest () to the highest () value for each parameter) (G) and an integrative diagram illustrating the effects of the phytochemicals from the cocoa shell on lipo/cytotoxicity and inflammation (H). The results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3). Bars with different letters (a–f) significantly (p < 0.05) differ according to ANOVA and Tukey’s multiple range test. NT: non-treated cells; TH: theobromine; PCA: protocatechuic acid; PB2: procyanidin B2; EPI: epicatechin; CAT: catechin; FGF21: fibroblast growth factor 21.

Inline graphic — Role of pure phytochemicals from the cocoa shell (50 µmol L⁻¹), aqueous extract (CAE, 100 µg mL⁻¹), and FGF21 (20 nmol L⁻¹), in the presence of palmitic acid (PA, 500 µmol L⁻¹), on lipo/cytotoxicity and inflammation markers in HepG2 human hepatocytes. Cocoa shell phytochemicals preserved cell viability (A) and diminished lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release (B). PA-triggered TNF-α (C), IL-6 (D), and IL-1β (E) release and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity (F) were reduced. Hierarchical cluster analysis and heat map (from the lowest () to the highest () value for each parameter) (G) and an integrative diagram illustrating the effects of the phytochemicals from the cocoa shell on lipo/cytotoxicity and inflammation (H). The results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3). Bars with different letters (a–f) significantly (p < 0.05) differ according to ANOVA and Tukey’s multiple range test. NT: non-treated cells; TH: theobromine; PCA: protocatechuic acid; PB2: procyanidin B2; EPI: epicatechin; CAT: catechin; FGF21: fibroblast growth factor 21.