Table 3.

Different biological activities of P. erosus through in vivo, ex vivo, and human studies.

Sr. No.	Activity	Model	Dose Duration	Substance	Result	References
1	Anti-diabetes	Male ICR mice induced for diabetes mellitus by streptozotocin Blood glucose was measured using a glucometer	(200 mg/kg) at 0, 30, 60, and 120 min	P. erosus tuber extract	The AUC for the glucose response of P. erosus extract-fed group (658.1 ± 18.0 mg·h/dL) was lower than that of the control group (742.5 ± 24.7 mg·h/dL) (p < 0.05)	[60]
		Male C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice; blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels	(0.5 g/100 g diet) 6 weeks	P. erosus tuber extract in water	HbA1c values for P. erosus extract-fed group (9.11 ± 1.06) was lower than that of the control group (12.92 ± 0.31) in db/db control groups (p < 0.05)	[61]
		Plasma insulin level	(0.5 g/100 g diet) 6 weeks	P. erosus tuber extract in water	Plasma insulin values for P. erosus extract-fed group (191.85 ± 4.65) was lower than that of the control group (251.04 ± 25.24) in db/db-control groups (p < 0.05)	[61]
		Homeostatic index of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI)	(0.5 g/100 g diet) 6 weeks	P. erosus tuber extract in water	HOMA-IR values for P. erosus extract-fed group (22.26 ± 0.53) was lower than that of the control group (40.43 ± 4.03) in db/db-control groups (p < 0.05). QUICKI values for P. erosus extract fed group (0.24 ± 0.01) was higher than that of the control group (0.22 ± 0.01) in db/db-control groups (p < 0.05)	[61]
		Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT)	(0.5 g/100 g diet) 6 weeks	P. erosus tuber extract in water	IPGTT outcomes were improved in db/db-JCE group mice compared to db/db-control group mice	[61]
		Hepatic glycogen assay	(0.5 g/100 g diet) 6 weeks	P. erosus tuber extract in water	Hepatic glycogen concentration values for P. erosus extract-fed group (116.49 ± 5.12) were higher than that of the control group (90.25 ± 4.75 mg/g) in db/db-control groups (p < 0.05)	[61]
		Male Bagg and Albino (BALB)/c mice fed with HSD Blood glucose measurements	10% and 25% P. erosus tuber Fiber (PTF) in diet 8over 8 weeks	P. erosus tuber fiber	Blood glucose level was significantly lower in JF groups (HSD + JF 10%, and HSD + JF 25%) as compared with HSD group, starting at 4th week of treatment (p < 0.05)	[62]
		Body weight and adipose tissue measurements	10% and 25% PTF in 8-week diet	P. erosus tuber fiber	The body weight gain was significantly lower in JF 25% group, but not in JF 10% group, as compared with HSD group (p < 0.01)	[62]
		24 male DDY strain mice	Yogurt, 2 mL for 7 days	Probiotic treatment group vs. using P. erosus, yogurt and control	P. erosus probiotic yogurt more effectively decreased (337.57 ± 90.01 mg / dL) blood glucose levels than the probiotic yogurt (p = 0.00)	[65]
		BALB (Bagg and Albino)/c mice	10% and 25% with high-fat diet for 8 weeks	P. erosus tuber fiber powder	Blood glucose was significantly lower in the treated groups and normal group. The pancreatic tissue was protected from high-fat diet induced islet hyperplasia and hypertrophy in mice treated the treatment group	[63,64]
		40–50-year-old people; 10 people as a case group and 10 people as a control group	Dose of 250 g (150 mL) per day given for 7 days	P. erosus starch extract	259.90 mg/dL, then 185.40 mg	[110]
		Male and female Wistar strain rats; hampering blood glucose in rat models	7 mL juice with glucose (50% concentration 2.5 gm/kg)	P. erosus tuber juice	The mean increase of blood glucose level was 324.45 mg/dL	[69]
2	Immune modulation	Male BALB/c mice induced with hepatitis B vaccine	25, 50, and 100 mg/kg P. erosus tuber fiber extract for 18 days	P. erosus tuber fiber extract	Treatment stimulated phagocytotic macrophages, NO production from peritoneal macrophages, and in vivo lymphocyte proliferation. Enhancements in phagocytic capacity index characterized by increased NO, IL-10, and TNF-production	[15]
		Male BALB/c mice induced with hepatitis B vaccine	100 and 200 mg/kg for 18 days	Methanolic and ethyl ether fraction (FAEF) from the tuber of P. erosus	Enhanced the innate immune response and IgG production. The immune enhancing effect was observed with FAEF treatment with increased phagocytic activity, and stimulation of both TNF-α and IL-6 production	[17]
		Female BALB/c mice	6.75 or 27 mg/kg body weight for 14 days	P. erosus tuber fiber extract	BFE may activate the adaptive immune responses by enhancing the production of Igs and cytokines in vivo	[86]
		BALB/c mice	6.75 mg/kg and 27 mg/kg for 7 days	P. erosus tuber fiber extract	BFE could activate macrophages by increasing the phagocytosis activity and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in mouse P-Mac in vitro and in vivo	[84]
		BALB/c mice	6.75 and 27 mg/mL	Tuber fiber extract	Phagocytosis activity percentage of P-Mac ex vivo increased from 32.1 ± 1.9 to 42.6 ± 4.6 (p < 0.001)	[84]
3	Phytoesterogenic activity	Female Sprague–Dawley rat histopathology	1.5 mL P. erosus tuber juice for 24 days	P. erosus tuber juice	The myometrium in rats with P. erosus tuber juice treatment was wider than controls and pure daidzein treatment	[41]
		BALB/c female	0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 g/kg for 24 days	P. erosus tuber	Treatment caused proliferation of the uterine endometrium and myometrium layers and increased the number of uterine glands	[99]
		Rats (Female)	Three oral doses: 70, 140, and 280 mg/200 g every day for 14 days	Tuber ethanol extract	Significantly increased the number of antral follicles and endometrial stromal follicles; increased the amount of endometrial epithelium was observed	[100]
4	Anti-osteoporosis	Female Sprague–Dawley rats	200, 400, and 800 mg/kg for 28 days	Ethyl acetate extract of P. erosus tuber	Femoral length, tibiae length, bone density of bone ash; content of calcium, and bone ash content of phosphorus increased to 32.51 ± 0.92 mm, 37.25 ± 0.57 mm, 1.441 ± 0.064 g/cm3, 50.02 ± 6.55%, and 32.73 ± 1.09%, respectively	[14]
5	Cardio protection	Human platelet aggregation study and blood pressure measurement	500 mL	P. erosus tuber juice	The ex vivo collagen-induced platelet aggregation was significantly attenuated, as well as platelet inhibition and blood pressure lowering	[102]
6	Central nervous system depressant activity	Swiss albino mice of either sex	75 and 150 mg/kg	Ethanolic seed extract of P. erosus	Ethanolic extract of seeds of P. erosus possess sedative, anti-anxiety, muscle relaxant, and anti-aggressive properties in different experiments	[8]
7	Preventive effects on gastric ulcers	Swiss Webster mice	100, 300, and 600 mg/kg	P. erosus tuber juice	Reduced the number of ulcers, increased the ratio of protection, and repaired the cells in gastric histopathology	[105]
8	Insecticidal activity	Insecticide oviposition deterrent activity	0.1–2.0 (% W/v)	P. erosus seed extract in chloroform	Oviposition deterrent indices P. erosus seed extracts and coumarin partially deterred the diamondback moth adults from laying eggs on treated leaves in a concentration-dependent manner	[108]
		Larvae and adults of Aedes aegypti	Up to 100 mg/mL	P. erosus seed water and (70%) alcoholic extract	Lethal concentration 50 (LC50) of 16.22 ± 0.20 µg/mL and LC50 value of 91.41 ± 0.49 µg/mL	[109]