Table 2.
EVs are involved in the pathogenesis of CVD-associated-CKD.
| EVs as Clinical Prognosis/Diagnostic Biomarker in Chronic Diseases | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Origin (Cells) | Species | Levels (Plasma) ↑: Increase ↓: Decrease |
Diseases | Effect | References |
| Leukocytes Platelets Endothelial |
Human | ↑ | Initiation and progression of CVD (associated with inflammation) |
Apoptosis/activation platelets, leukocytes erythrocytes, and endothelial cells Endothelial function and angiogenesis Inflammation and thrombosis |
[21,187] |
| Leukocytes Platelets Endothelial |
Human | ↑ | Atherosclerosis (chronic inflammatory) | Vascular injury Inflammation Pro-thrombotic state |
[21] |
| Endothelial Blood |
Human | ↑ | CKD (including cardiovascular events) |
Chronic inflammation | [26] |
| Platelets Erythrocytes Endothelial |
Human | ↑ | Metabolic syndrome (inflammatory diseases) | Metabolic complications Vascular effects Immuno-inflammatory responses |
[192] |
| Platelets Endothelial |
Human | ↑ | Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | Inflammation Autoimmunity |
[193] |
| Monocyte subpopulations | Human | ↑ | CKD on HD (mainly people with diabetes) |
Progression of the CVD in patients with CKD CKD in HD patients with DM |
[101] |
| Senescent endothelial cells from plasma elderly subjects | Human (in vivo and in vitro) | ↑ | Vascular calcification | Marker for atherosclerosis Premature vascular disease associated with CKD |
[20] |
| From indoxyl-sulfate treated endothelial cells (studies in vitro) | Human (in vitro) | ↑ (from culture supernatant) |
Vascular calcification in CVD associated-CKD | Modulation of pro-inflammatory genes in VSMCs Modulation of mediators involved in calcification progression in VSMCs |
[189] |
| Endothelial | Human | ↑ | CKD | Vascular inflammation (acute or chronic) Endothelial dysfunction |
[194] |